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DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


BULLETIN,  1919.  No.  55 


BUSINESS  EDUCATION  IN 
SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


A  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSION  ON 
THE  REORGANIZATION  OF  SECOND- 
ARY EDUCATION,  APPOINTED  BY  THE 
NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
\9\9 


No. 


BITLLETIN  OF  THE  BTOEAIT  OF  EDUCATION  FOR  1919. 


No  I'  ^Mn!f  l^•''T■''  "i  '''''''''  ^^^^^^^-'^tional  publications,  January,  1919 

No.         Standardization  of  medical  inspection  facilities,     j.  H.  Berkowitz 

ISO.  3.  Home  education.     Ellen  C.  Lombard.  -t^tiKosMiz. 

No.  4.  A  manual  of  educational  legislation. 

No.  5.  Instruction   in   music,   191G-1918.     Waldo    S     I'ratt 

Ao.  6.  The  half-time  mill  school.    H.  W.  Foght. 

No.  7.  Rural  education,  191G-1918.     H.  W.  Foght 

No.  8  Life  of  Henry  Barnard.     Bernard  C.  Steiner 

No.  9.  Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.    I.  L.  Kandel 

No.  10.  Educational  work  of  the  churches  in  1916-1918 

v""'  }o   l^T^^^'  '^'''^"'^  ^^  ^^'^'^^'^^  educational  publications,  February   1919 

^o.  12.  Education  in  the  Territories  and  dependencies,  191^1918 

No.  13.  Review  of  educational  legislation,  1917  and  1918.    Wm   R   Hood 

?;''•  }t'  f  «^^^^^^y  ^^^^^'^  of  current  educational  publications,  March    1919* 

^^''*  ^?:'  l!^  ^^^^J^^tment  of  the  teaching  load  in  a  university.    L.  V.  Koos  ' 

iNo.  lb.  The  kindergarten  curriculum. 

No.  17.  Educational  conditions  in  Spain.    Walter  A.  Montgomery. 

Ao.  18.  Commercial  education,   1910-1918.    Frank  V.  Thompson 

No.  19.  Engineering  education,  1916-1918.    F.  L.  Bishop 

No.  20.  The  rural  teacher  of  Nebraska. 

No.  21.  Education  in  Germany.     I.  L.  Kandel 

No'  II'  MnntT?^  "'  '''f  T  ^^^"^^^^^^'  1910-1918.     S.  P.  Capen  and  W.  C.  John. 

t     I:  ^?  ^^  f  '^"^"^^'^  ^^  ^^^^'^"^  educational  publications,  April,  1919. 

ISO.  24.  Educational  work  of  the  Boy  Scouts.     Lome  W    Barclay 

No.  25.  Vocational  education,  1910-1918.     Wm.  T.  Bawden 

No.  20.  The  United  States  School  Garden  Army.     J.  H.  Francis 

No.  27.  Recent  progress  in  Negro  education.     Thomas  J   Jones' 

No.  28.  Educational   periodicals    during   the   nineteenth    centurv     Sheldon   E 

Davis. 
No.  29.  Schools  of  Scandinavia,  Finland,  and  Holland.     Peter  H    Pearson 
No.  30,  The  American  spirit  in  education.     0.  R.  Mann. 
No.  81.  Summer  schools  in  1918. 

No.  32.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications;  Index,  Februarv 
1918- January,  1919.  '   *  ' 

No.  83.  Girl  Scouts  as  an  educational  force.     Juliette  Low. 
No.  34.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  IMay    1919 
No.  3o.  The  junior  college.     F.  M.  McDowell. 
No.  36.  Education  in  Italy.     AValter  A.  Montgomery. 
No.  37.  Educational  changes  in  Russia.     Theresa  Bach. 
No.  38.  Education  in  Switzerland,  lGlG-18.     Peter  H.  Pearson 
No.  39.  Training  little  children.     Bessie  Locke. 

No.  40.  Work  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  for  the  natives  of  \iaska   1917-18 
No.  41.  An  educational  study  of  Alabama.  '    " 

No,  42.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  June,  1919. 
r Continued  on  page  3  of  cover.] 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 
BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


BULLETIN,  1919,  No.  55 


BUSINESS  EDUCATION  IN 
SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


A  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSION  ON 
THE  REORGANIZATION  OF  SECOND- 
ARY EDUCATION,  APPOINTED  BY  THE 
NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1919 


.^^ 


^K 
v-^ 


ADDITIONAL  COPIES 

OF  THIS  PUBLICATION  MAY  BE  PKOCUBED  FEOM 

THE  SUPEBIKTENDENT  OF  DOCUMENTS 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

WASaiNGTON,  D.  C. 

AT 

10  CENTS  PER  COPY 


REPORTS  OF  THE  COMMISSION  ON  THE  REORGANIZATION  OF 
SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

The  following  reports  of  tlie  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary- 
Education  are  now  available  as  bulletins  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion and  may  be  purchased  of  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington. 
D.  C,  at  the  prices  indicated.  Other  reports  are  in  preparation.  Remittance' 
should  be  made  in  coin  or  money  order  as  stamps  are  not  accepted : 
1913,  No.  41.  The  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education.  Contains  prelimi- 
nary statements  by  the  chairmen  of  committees.    10  cents. 

1915,  No.  23.  The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics.    10  cents. 

1916,  No.  28.  The  Social  Studies  in  Secondary  Education.     10  cents. 

1917,  No.    2.  Reorganization  of  English  in  Secondary  Schools.    20  cents. 
1917,  No.  49.  Music  in  Secondary  Schools.    5  cents. 

1917,  No.  50.  Physical  Education  in  Secondary  Schools.    5  cents. 

1917,  No.  51.  Moral  Values  in  Secondary  Education.    5  cents. 

1918,  No.  19.  Vocational  Guidance  in  Secondary  Schools.     5  cents. 

1918,  No.  35.  Cardinal  Principles  of  Secondary  Education.    5  cents. 

1919,  No.  55.  Business  Education  in  Secondary  Schools.    cents. 


COMMITTEE  ON  BUSINESS  EDUCATION. 

Cheesman  A.  Herrick,  chairman,  president  Girard  College,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
John  A.  Bexell,  dean  School  of  Commerce,  Oregon  Agricultural  College,  Cor- 

vallis,  Oreg. 
Henry  E.  Brown,  principal  New  Trier  Township  High  School,  Kenilworth,  111. 
Robert  A.  Grant,  director  department  of  btisiness,  Yeatman  High  School,  St. 

Louis,  Mo. 
Winfield  S.  McKinney,  commercial  teacher,  Englewood  High  School,  Chicago,  111. 
Fredericli  G.   Nichols,  assistant  director  in  charge  of  commercial  education, 

Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Alexander  H.  Sproul,  principal  High  School  of  Commerce,  Portland,  Oreg. 
Frank  V.  Thompson,  superintendent  of  public  schools,  Boston,  Mass. 
Ernest  L.  Thurston,  superintendent  of  public  schools,  District  of  Columbia. 
Solomon  Weimer,  principal  High  School  of  Commerce,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Annie  T.  Wise,  principal  Commercial  High  School,  Atlanta,  Ga. 


THE    REVIEWING    COMMITTEE    OP    THE    COMMISSION    ON    THE 
REORGANIZATION  OP  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

(The  Reviewing  Committee  consists  of  26  members,  of  whom  16  are  chairmen  of  com- 
mittees and  10  are  members  at  large.) 

Chairman  of  the  Commission  and  of  the  Revieiving  Committee: 

Clarence  D.  Kingsley,  State  high-school  supervisor,  Boston,  Mass. 

3 


415158 


4  V  HEJPORTS. 

Members  at  larger  '  '•'"       -  -^^  -  '      ^^ 

Hon.  P.  P.  Claxton,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 
*  Thomas  H.  Briggs,  associate  professor  of  education,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

Alexander  Inglis,  assistant  professor  of  education,  in  charge  of  secondary 
education,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Henry  Neumann,  Ethical  Culture  School,  New  York  City. 

William  Orr,  senior  educational  secretary,  international  Y,  M.  C.  A.  com- 
mittee, 104  East  Twenty-eighth  Street,  New  York  City. 

William  B.  Owen,  principal,  Chicago  Normal  College,  Chicago,  111, 

Edward  O.  Sisson,  president,  University  of  Montana,  Missoula,  Mont. 

Joseph  S.  Stewart,  professor  of  secondary  education,  University  of  Georgia, 
Athens,  Ga. 

Milo  H.  Stuart,  principal.  Arsenal  Technical  Schools,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

H.  L.  Terry,  State  high-school  supervisor,  Madison,  Wis. 

Chairmen  of  Cwnmittees: 

Organization  and  Administration  of  Secondary  Education — Charles 
Hughes  Johnston,  professor  of  secondary  education.  University  of 
Illinois,  Urbana,  111.* 

Agriculture — A.  V.  Storm,  professor  of  agricultural  education.  University 
of  Minnesota,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Art  Education — Royal  B.  Farnum,  president.  Mechanics'  Institute,  Roch- 
ester, N.  Y. 

Articulation  of  High  School  and  College — Clarence  D.  Kingsley,  State 
high-school  supervisor,  Boston,  Mass. 

Business  Education — Cheesman  A.  Herrick,  president,  Girard  College, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Classical  Languages — ^Walter  Eugene  Foster,  Stuyvesant  High  School, 
New  York  City. 

English — James  Fleming  Hosic,  Chicago  Normal  College,  Chicago,  111. 

Household  Arts — Mrs.  Henrietta  W.  Calvin,  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Industrial  Arts — Wilson  H.  Henderson,  extension  division.  University  of 
Wisconsin,  Milwaukee,  Wis.  (now  Major,  Sanitary  Corps,  War  Depart- 
ment, U.  S.  A.). 

Mathematics — ^William  Heard  Kilpatrick,  associate  professor  of  education, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  Y'ork  City. 

Modern  Languages — Edward  Manley,  Englewood  High  School,  Chicago, 
111. 

Music — Will  Earhart,  director  of  music,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Physical  Education — James  H.  McCurdy,  director  of  normal  courses  of 
physical  education,  International  Y.  M.  C.  A.  College,  Springfield,  Mass. 
(now  in  France,  in  charge  of  Y,  M.  C.  A.  recreation  work). 

Sciences — Otis  W.  Caldwell,  director,  Lincoln  School,  and  professor  of 
education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

Social  Studies — Thomas  Jesse  Jones,  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, Washington,  D.  C. 

Vocational  Guidance — Frank  ]M.  Leavitt,  associate  superintendent  of 
schools,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

1  Deceased,  Sept.  4,  1917. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 7 

Preface 9 

I'art  I. — The  commercial  curriculum  : 

1.  The  problem 11 

2.  Types  of  organization  giving  secondary  commercial  education 12 

3.  Purposes , — 14 

4.  Suggestions  for  a  commercial  curriculum 15 

5.  Need  for  definiteness  of  aim 18 

6.  Relations  of  commercial  education  to  the  business  community 19 

7.  Educational  aims  of  commercial  curriculums 20 

8.  The  short  curriculum  considered 21 

9.  Commercial  work  in  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  years 23 

10.  Suiting  the  curriculum  to  community  needs 24 

Part  II. — Suggestions  regarding  courses  in  the  commercial  curriculum : 

1.  English 26 

2.  Foreign  languages 30 

3.  Science 31 

4.  Social  studies 32 

5.  Commercial  studies '. 39 

Part  III. — Conclusion 65 

Appendix 67 

5 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/businesseducatioOOunitrich 


LETTER    OP    TRANSMITTAL. 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington^  November  H^  1919. 
Sir:  When  the  National  Education  Association  Commission  on 
the  Eeorganization  of  Secondary  Education  outlined  its  work  six 
years  ago — more  than  a  year  before  the  beginning  of  the  World 
War — a  committee  was  formed  to  study  and  report  on  business  edu- 
cation in  secondary  schools.    At  that  time  this  subject  was  relatively 
much  less  important  than  it  is  now.    Then  we  were  not  a  commercial 
nation  to  any  large  extent.    Our  domestic  commerce  was  large,  and 
there  was  a  constantly  increasing  demand  for  stenographers,  type- 
writers, bookkeepers,  private  secretaries,  and  other  clerical  help  in 
our  numerous  industrial  plants  and  business  offices  of  various  kinds. 
But  we  had  little  foreign  commerce.    We  sold  much  to  other  coun- 
tries, and  we  bought  much  from  them,  but  we  bought  and  sold  at  our 
own  ports  goods  carried  to  and  fro  in  foreign  bottoms,  flying  foreign 
flags,  under  the  direction  of  foreign  merchants,  and  financed  by 
banks  of  other  countries.    With  the  close  of  the  war  and  the  coming 
of  peace,  we  find  ourselves  engaged  in  foreign  commerce  on  a  large 
scale.    In  a  few  years,  unless  all  signs  fail,  our  flag  will  be  seen  in  all 
ports,  our  ships  will  carry  a  large  part  of  the  commerce  of  the  world, 
our  merchants  will  trade  directly  with  all  countries,  i^nd  their  opera- 
tions will  be  financed  by  our  own  banks,  with  their  branches  in  all 
important  commercial  cities.     It  also  seems  quite  certain  that  our 
great  engineering  and  industrial  companies  will  have  a  large  share 
in  the  rebuilding  of  the  world  and  in  developing  countries  whose 
industrial  progress  will  date  from  the  reestablishment  of  peace.    All 
this  will  call  for  a  large  amount  of  business  education  in  our  high 
schools  and  perhaps  a  somewhat  radical  reconstruction  of  courses  of 
study  in  this  subject.     The  committee,  in  making  this  report,  has 
not  been  unmindful  of  these  changing  conditions,  but  it  is  quite 
probable  that  if  the  committee  were  to  take  this  subject  up  again 
for  a  report  now  or  within  a  few  months  from  now,  it  would  make 
some  important  changes  in  the  report  already  made.    It  is,  however, 

7 


8  LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 

very  fortunate  that  the  report  can  be  printed  now  as  it  is.  A  very 
large  part  of  it  will  be  found  valuable  for  immediate  use  in  the 
schools.  Other  parts  will  serve  as  a  basis  and  a  j)oint  of  departure 
for  those  who  would  go  further  to  meet  the  larger  demands  of  the 
present  and  the  future.  I  therefore  recommend  that  this  report  be 
printed  as  a  bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

P.  P.  Claxton, 

Commissioner. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 


PEEFACE 


Sixteen  years  have  elapsed  since  a  conmiittee  of  the  business  edu- 
cation department  of  the  N"ational  Education  Association  submitted 
a  rejDort  on  the  commercial  curriculum  with  somewhat  detailed  treat- 
ment of  the  various  subjects  of  study.  Four  years  ago  another  com- 
mittee of  the  same  department  made  a  less  complete  report.  Sub- 
sequent changes  in  education  and  in  business  now  call  for  further 
changes  in  commercial  education  in  secondary  schools. 

The  plan  of  the  Commission  on  the  Eeorganization  of  Secondary 
Education  offered  an  opportunity  for  a  study  of  the  secondary  com- 
mercial curriculum  in  its  relation  to  the  other  fields  of  secondary  edu- 
cation. Early  in  the  work  of  the  commission  a  committee  on  busi- 
ness education  was  appointed  under  the  chairmanship  of  Dr.  A.  L. 
Pugh,  of  the  High  School  of  Commerce,  New  York  City.  This  com- 
mittee made  preliminary  studies  which  were  a  contribution  toward 
the  present  report.  The  present  committee  was  organized  in  1916, 
and  consisted  almost  entirely  of  persons  directly  engaged  in  com- 
mercial education  in  secondary  schools.  Since  the  organization  of 
the  committee  two  members  have  been  called  to  superintendencies  of 
schools  in  large  cities,  and  a  third  has  been  selected  to  assume  the  di- 
rection of  commercial  education  for  the  Federal  Board  for  Voca- 
tional Education. 

An  examination  of  the  report  will  indicate  that,  while  it  has  re- 
tained and  given  full  credit  to  the  earlier  aspects  of  commercial 
education  in  which  the  aim  was  the  training  of  bookkeepers  and 
stenographers,  there  has  been  an  enlargement  of  the  field  so  that 
commercial  education  may  take  into  its  purview  the  preparation  of 
salesmen  and  of  those  who  are  to  participate  in  the  broader  aspects 
of  business  life. 

The  report  contained  in  this  bulletin  has  been  approved  not  only 
by  the  committee  on  business  education,  but  also  by  the  reviewing 
committee  of  the  commission.  Approval  by  the  reviewing  committee 
does  not  commit  every  member  individually  to  every  statement  and 
every  implied  educational  doctrine,  but  does  mean  essential  agree- 
ment as  a  committee  with  the  general  recommendations.  Messrs. 
Inglis  and  Kingsley,  of  the  reviewing  committee,  however,  take  ex- 
132799°— 19 2  9 


10  PREFACE. 

ception  to  the  limited  amount  of  required  social  study  suggested  for 
years  9, 10,  and  11,  and  in  particular  to  the  restrictions  of  community 
civic^  to  two  and  one-half  periods  per  week  in  the  ninth  year. 

Attention  is  called  to  Bulletin  31  of  the  Federal  Board  of  Voca- 
tional Education,  entitled  ''Commercial  Education;  Organization 
and  Administration."  That  bulletin,  which  was  prepared  by  F.  G. 
Nichols,  who  is  a  member  of  the  committee  on  business  education, 
is  in  a  sense  supplementary,  to  the  report  in  this  bulletin.  It  con- 
tains an  analysis  of  the  various  types  of  commercial  education  now 
needed,  and  indicates  the  part  which  Federal,  State,  and  local 
agencies  should  take  in  the  development  and  support  of  such  edu- 
cation. It  gives  plans  for  the  organization  of  secondary  conmiercial 
education,  devoting  special  attention  to  commercial  work  conducted 
in  part-time,  continuation,  and  evening  classes. 

Cheesmax   a.  Herrick, 
Chairman  Co-mmittee  on.  Business  Education, 

Clarence  D.  Kingsley, 
Chairman  Reviewing  Committee. 


BUSmESS  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


PART  I.— THE  COMMERCIAL  CURRICULUM, 


I.  THE  PROBLEM. 

By  secondary  commercial  education  this  conmiittee  understands 
that  training  of  the  secondary  school,  direct  and  related,  the  aim  of 
which  is  to  equip  young  people  for  entrance  into  business  life.  As- 
suredly those  going  into  business  are  entitled  to  an  education,  which, 
so  far  as  possible,  will  give  breadth  of  view  and  catholicity  of  inter- 
est, as  well  as  facility  in  performing  some  specific  task  in  the  business 
world.  The  committee  believes,  therefore,  that  secondary  commercial 
education  can  and  should  be  made  liberal,  and  at  the  same  time  pre- 
pare for  some  branch  or  branches  of  business. 

The  situation  with  which  this  report  has  to  deal  is  not  theoretical. 
From  the  most  reliable  data  available  it  appears  that  about  half  a 
million  young  people  at  present  are  pursuing  secondary  commercial 
studies  in  the  United  States.  From  the  same  sources,  it  appears  that 
more  than  one-fourth  of  all  pupils  attending  the  secondary  schools 
are  taking  such  studies.  Moreover,  during  the  past  15  years  the 
number  of  pupils  pursuing  secondary  commercial  education  has 
grown  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  increase  of  population  or  to  the 
total  increase  in  attendance  on  secondary  schools. 

It  is  impossible  satisfactorily  to  consider  commercial  education  in 
American  secondary  schools  without  a  brief  statement  of  the  ante- 
cedents leading  up  to  the  present  conditions.  The  private  commercial 
school  grew  out  of  schools  of  penmanship;  following  writing  there 
came  bookkeeping,  and  after  this  commercial  arithmetic,  spelling,  let- 
ter writing,  and  business  English.  The  improvement  of  the  type- 
writer, at  about  1870,  gave  an  impetus  to  shorthand  writing  which 
had  been  begun  earlier,  and  led  to  the  development  of  stenography 
and  typewriting  as  important  branches  of  commercial  education. 
These  subjects  are  definite  in  character  and  can  be  measured  specifi- 
cally as  to  results.  They  have  been  the  popular  branches  of  commer- 
cial education  and  it  may  well  be  that  they  have  received  undue 
emphasis. 

11 


12  BUSINESS  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

From  about  1850  to  about  1880  coimnercial  education  in  this  country 
was  given  principally  in  private  schools,  conducted  mainly  for  profit. 
These  schools  were  limited  in  scope  and  they  overemphasized  the 
technique  of  a  few  subjects.  Changing  conceptions  of  education  at 
about  1880  led  to  a  demand  that  the  public  high  schools  furnish  com- 
mercial education.  The  tendency  at  first  was  to  introduce  abbreviated 
courses,  often  duplicating  in  subject  matter  and  methods  of  instruc- 
tion the  work  done  in  the  private  business  schools.  The  private  busi- 
ness schools  furnished  both  textbooks  and  teachers  for  those  early 
commercial  courses  in  high  schools. 

The  establishment  of  higher  commercial  schools  in  colleges  and 
universities,  and  the  influence  of  commercial  schools  of  a  more  liberal 
scholastic  character  in  European  countries  led,  in  the  late  nineties,  to 
a  reorganization  of  secondary  commercial  curriculums.  From  that 
time  forward  new  curriculums  were  established,  equal  in  extent  to 
other  secondary-school  curriculums,  and  offering  an  educational  con- 
tent not  possible  in  the  earlier  schemes.  Many  of  the  earlier  short 
curriculums  were  lengthened. 

For  20  years  or  more  discussion  has  been  going  on  as  to  the  aims 
of  commercial  education,  and  the  methods  by  which  these  aims  can 
best  be  realized.  While  much  has  been  said  and  written,  there  are 
still  wide  differences  of  opinion,  and  an  utter  lack  of  consensus  as  to 
the  fundamentals  involved.  Moreover,  there  has  been  little  progress 
toward  harmony  among  educators  on  the  one  side  or  among  business 
men  on  the  other. 

II.  TYPES  OF  ORGANIZATION  GIVING  SECONDARY  COMMERCIAL 

EDUCATION. 

Present  activities  of  American  communities  in  furnishing  com- 
mercial education  may  be  grouped  under  five  heads,  as  follows : 

1.  The  specialized  high  school  of  commerce,  or  commercial  high 
school,  which  is  organized  specifically  to  train  young  people  for 
business  pursuits.  Schools  of  this  kind  exist  in  a  few  centers  of 
population,  as  Boston,  Worcester  and  Springfield,  Mass.,  New  York, 
Brooklyn,  Washington,  Atlanta,  Pittsburgh,  Columbus,  Cleveland, 
Omaha,  San  Francisco,  and  Portland,  Oreg.  These  schools  are 
rendering  a  useful  service  during  the  formative  period  of  com- 
mercial education.  Many  students  of  education  believe,  however, 
that  with  the  establishment  of  the  meaning  and  practice  of  com- 
mercial education  and  the  working  out  of  its  methods,  separate 
schools  become  less  necessary. 

2.  Closely  related  to  the  above  are  distinct  curriculums  for  com- 
mercial training  in  comprehensive,  or  composite,  high  schools.  These 
curriculums  often  exist,  in  effect,  as  schools  within  schools.    As 


THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  13 

such  they  can  be  so  organized  as  to  give  specific  training  for  business. 
The  comprehensive  high  school  is  the  only  feasible  type  in  small 
or  medium-sized  cities. 

3.  In  smaller  high  schools  commercial  education  can  be,  and  has 
been,  introduced  under  a  system  of  electives  by  which  a  pupil  with 
the  advice  and  under  the  direction  of  the  school  authorities  is  per- 
mitted to  choose  certain  designated  commercial  studies.  Schools  of 
this  sort  are  always  in  danger  of  attempting  more  than  they  can  do 
well.  A  limited  number  of  commercial  studies  well  done  is  likely 
to  be  more  satisfactory  than  a  larger  number  indifferently  completed. 

4.  The  rights  of  the  young  people  of  a  community,  and  the  good 
of  the  community  as  a  whole,  point  to  the  desirability  of  secondary 
education  in  continuation  classes  for  those  who  discontinue  regular 
school  attendance  in  advance  of  becoming  18  years  of  age,  and  be- 
fore completing  the  high-school  course.  Communities  owe  to  those 
who  have  been  given  general  education  and  are  forced  to  go  to  work 
before  completing  a  full  high-school  course  a  further  training  under 
what  may  be  denominated  continuation  and  extension  education. 
Thus,  instead  of  the  attempt  to  give  a  complete  and  final  equipment 
in  all  technical  commercial  subjects  to  those  who  can  not  continue  in 
school  on  full  time  we  recommend  that  all  young  people  who  are 
compelled  to  take  positions  as  junior  clerks  be  given  free  time  from 
their  employment  for  the  continuation  of  their  education,,  as  has 
been  the  practice  in  European  countries.  Compulsory  continuation 
education  is  in  operation  in  certain  foreign  countries  and  is  already 
being  introduced  in  a  modified  form  in  some  American  States.  Be- 
ginnings in  specialized  subjects,  such  as  bookkeeping  and  shorthand, 
may  be  made  in  the  high  school ;  and  should  the  pupil  be  under  the 
necessity  of  withdrawing  from  school  before  the  completion  of  the 
curriculum,  he  may  continue  this  education  after  entering  upon 
employment.  Evening  high  schools  also  afford  opportunity  to  extend 
and  supplement  the  work  already  accomplished  by  commercial  pupils 
in  the  day  schools. 

5.  Last,  and  relatively  the  newest  aspect  of  secondary  commercial 
education  in  this  country,  is  the  graduate  or  specialized  school  for 
those  who  have  either  completed  a  general  high-school  course  or  have 
completed  at  least  two  years  of  such  a  course,  and  who  wish  to  have 
an  abbreviated  and  definite  training  to  equip  them  for  commercial 
employment.  Schools  of  this  kind  can  of  necessity  be  established 
only  in  the  larger  centers  of  population,  and  in  the  opinion  of  the 
committee  they  have  in  such  centers  a  useful  function. 

In  the  above-named  types  of  schools  there  are  two  essentially  dif- 
ferent procedures.  In  one,  commercial  education  is  given  simul- 
taneously with  general  education.  The  pupil  gets  a  limited  amount 
of  commercial  education  in  his  earlier  years  and  as  he  goes  on  an 


14  BUSmP:SS   EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

increasing  amount,  but  during  the  entire  secondary -bcliool  period 
specific  training  for  commercial  life  takes  only  a  portion  of  his  time. 
In  the  .other  type  the  more  highly  specialized  professional  commer- 
cial education  in  a  clerical  school  is  planned  for  a  briefer  period  and 
is  made  to  rest  on  two  or  more  years  of  a  high-school  course  already 
completed,  or  their  equivalent. 

Commercial  work  has  hitherto  not  generally  been  organized  as  a 
curriculum  devoted  to  a  specific  object.  Instead  it  has  been  a 
loosely  formed  group  of  elective  studies  to  which  were  added  a  cer- 
tain number  of  vague  subjects,  and  as  such  it  has  failed  to  gi^e  the 
unity  necessary  in  any  really  effective  system  of  education. 

III.  PURPOSES. 

In  a  general  way,  commercial  education  up  to  the  present  has  at- 
tempted to  meet  four  distinct  business  needs : 

First,  and  most  definite  of  these,  is  the  training  of  stenographers ; 
and  second,  is  the  training  of  bookkeepers  and  clerks  for  general 
office  work.  These  two  functions  have  heretofore  been  regarded  as 
the  full  obligation  of  commercial  education.  The  limiting  of  com- 
mercial education  to  the  preparation  of  bookkeepers  and  stenog- 
raphers has  raised  the  question  as  to  whether  this  is  the  most  de- 
sirable form  of  training  for  boys.  It  appears  to  this  committee  that 
the  opportunities  for  a  broader  training  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
demand  of  business  for  young  men  on  the  other,  are  sufficient  grounds 
for  urging  that  boys  be  given  a  broader  commercial  education.  This, 
it  will  be  seen,  raises  the  further  questions  as  to  whether  boys  should 
not  have  a  different  commercial  education  from  that  given  to  girls, 
and  whether  boys  and  girls  may  not  in  some  cases  be  taught  more 
efficiently  in  separate  classes. 

Third,  the  need  that  business  education  has  recently  undertaken  to 
meet,  is  the  training  for  secretarial  work  of  th^se  who  have  had  a 
broader  fundamental  education  and  who  wish  to  take  more  re- 
sponsible positions  than  to  be  merely  stenographers.  Stenography 
and  typewriting  are  made  elements  in  the  training  of  secretaries,  but 
to  these  are  added  numerous  other  professional  studies,  such  as 
economics,  commercial  correspondence,  business  customs,  and  busi- 
ness law. 

Fourth,  the  need  that  commercial  education  now  seeks  to  suppiy 
is  the  demand  for  salesmen.  This  involves  not  only  a  training  in 
the  principles  of  salesmanship,  meeting  the  public,  making  a  sale, 
etc.,  but  also  a  broader  training  in  business,  knowledge  of  merchan- 
dise, and  the  cultivation  of  taste.  Salesmanship  offers  good  op- 
portunities to  do  part-time  work,  as  stores  are  often  anxious  to  have 
salespeople  for  a  few  hours  a  day  during  the  heaviest  pressure,  or  on 


THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  15 

special  days  in  the  week,  or  again  for  special  times,  such  as  around 
holiday  seasons  or  during  conventions.  Salespeople  can  leave  off 
and  take  up  the  work  without  a  serious  break.  A  further  advantage 
in  the  salesmanship  courses  is  the  possibility  of  combining  the  theory 
of  salesmanship  given  in  the  school  with  practice  in  the  store. 

The  conclusion  sometimes  made  that  commercial  education  should 
be  for  girls  only  is  based  on  false  premises.  Commercial  education 
should  have  a  much  wider  purpose  than  the  training  of  stenog- 
raphers and  bookkeepers.  Already  the  broadened  commercial  edu- 
cation has  addressed  itself  to  the  task  of  training  for  service  in  the 
community,  for  participation  in  social  life,  and  for  knowledge  of, 
and  ability  to  adapt  one's  self  to,  business  as  a  whole.  Such  subjects 
as  economics,  business  organization,  advertising,  salesmanship,  and 
store  practice  are  relatively  new,  and  yet  in  their  entirety  they  make 
a  new  purpose  of  business  education  comparable  with,  if  not  more 
important  than,  stenography  or  bookkeeping.  Young  people  trained 
for  the  broader  and  more  professional  aspects  of  commercial  life  have 
every  prospect  of  finding  for  themselves  highly  useful  places  in  busi- 
ness as  they  demonstrate  their  fitness  for  more  responsible  duties. 
In  the  suggested  curriculum  given  below  the  attempt  is  made  to 
realize  these  purposes. 

IV.  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  A  COMMERCIAL  CURRICULUM. 

The  time  allotment  for  physical  education  and  chorus  singing  is 
not  specified  in  the  tabulation  below.  It  is  assumed  that  commer- 
cial pupils  will  have  the  benefit  of  the  full  provision  for  these  activi- 
ties. Not  less  than  four  periods  a  week  should  be  devoted  to  this 
work. 

SE^^NTH  YEAR. 

The  work  in  this  year  should  be  practically  the  same  as  that  of 
other  pupils  in  the  school.  It  should  include  English,  geography  and 
history,  arithmetic,  physiology  and  hygiene,  penmanship,  physical 
education,  household  or  industrial  arts,  drawing,  and  music.  The 
work  of  this  year  may  well  include  some  "  try-out "  projects  or  short 
unit  courses  designed  to  help  in  the  choice  of  work  for  the  following 
years.  If  such  try-out  courses  are  offered  they  should  be  taken  by 
all  students,  or,  at  least,  each  student  should  have  an  opportunity  to 
choose  from  a  variety  of  such  courses.  Specializing  is  out  of  place 
in  this  year. 

The  try-out  courses  above  suggested  should  serve  two  ends:  To 
determine  the  interests,  aptitudes,  and  capacities  of  pupils,  and, 
second,  to  reveal  to  the  pupils  the  major  fields  of  academic  and  voca- 
tional interests.     Only  by  such  an  arrangement  as  is  here  recom- 


16 


BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


mended  can  the  pupil  elect  his  curriculum  intelligently.  These  try- 
out  courses  should  at  the  same  time  have  a  content  of  assured  educa- 
tional value. 


EIGHTH  YEAE. 


English  (half  the  time  devoted  to  practical  English  with  emphasis  on  simple  business 

English  and  letter  forms;...... 

U.  S.  history 

Household  or  industrial  arts., 

Business  arithmetic 

E lementary  industrial  and  commercial  geography  

First  lessons  in  business,  including  short  daily  drills  in  business  writing 


Total. 


Periods.! 


Pre- 
pared. 


Unpre- 
pared. 


^-IXTH    YEAE. 


English 

Commimity  civics  (5  periods  one-halt  year; 

General  science  i« 

Commercial  mathematics  (5  periods  one-haif  year). 

Elementary  bookkeeping,  business  forms  and  business  writing. 
Typewritmg 


Total, 


TENTH    YEAK. 


Required. 

English— Selected  reading  with  oral  and  written  composition 

Bookkeeping,  intermediate 

Industrial  and  commercial  geography,  including  local  industries  and  commercial 
prod  acts 


Electives  (choose  1). 


Shorthand  and  typewriting. 

Science 

History  to  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century . 
Modern  language 


»  Length  of  periods  to  be  approximately  45  to  50  minutes.  The  committee  would  call  attention  to  the 
advantages  of  a  longer  school  day  with  longer  periods  to  include  supervised  study,  and  a  reduced  require- 
ment for  the  preparation  of  lessons  outside  oi  school. 

» Conditions  in  some  schools  may  warrant  lor  some  pupils  the  substitution  of  either  household  arts  or  a 
modem  language. 

»  Additional  eiectives  which  are  available  in  the  school  and  for  which  the  pupils  have  special  aptitude 
should  be  open  to  them .  It  is  especially  recommended  that  wherever  well-organized  courses  in  commercial 
or  appUed  art  are  offered  such  couises  be  commended  to  commercial  students  who  may  have  aptitude  for 
them. 

If  shorthand  is  not  elected,  typewriting  may  be  taken  as  an  extra 
unprepared  subject  for  5  periods. 

ELEVENTH   AND   TWELFTH   TEARS.^ 


Beginning  with  the  eleventh  year  the  pupil's  work  should  be  more 
highly  specialized  in  one  of  the  three  following  fields :  General  busi- 
ness and  bookkeeping ;  stenographic  and  presecretarial ;  or  retail  sell- 


THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM. 


17 


ing  and  store  service.  To  make  the  suggestions  under  these  heads 
more  obvious  the  work  for  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  years  is  arranged 
in  three  type  curriculums.  These  curriculums  are  each  two  years  in 
length  and  include  certain  subjects  which  are  common  to  all  the  cur- 
riculums. Naturally  the  studies  common  to  the  different  curriculums 
will  be  taught  jointly. 

General  business  and  hookJceepinff  cut^iculum. 

ELE^^NTH    YEAR. 


Periods 
per 

week. 


Required. 

English— Selected  reading  with  oral  and  written  composition 

Office  practice 

Bookkeeping,  advanced 

Electives  {chooie  ai  leant  S). 

Economic  history  since  1700 

Science  with  industrial  applications 

Modem  language 


TWELFTH    YEAR. 


Required. 

Business  English— theme  writing,  oral  reports,  and  commercial  correspondence  

Advanced  A  merican  history  and  citizenship 

Commercial  law  (5  periods  one-half  year) 

Economics  (5  periods  one-half  year) 

Advanced  commercial  arithmetic 

Business  organization,  advertising,  and  salesmanship  (or  loreign  language  if  begun  earlier) 


StcnoffrapJiic  and  prcsecretarial  curriculum. 

ELEVENTH   YEAR. 


Rtquired. 

English— Selected  reading  with  oral  and  written  composition 

Shortb  and 

Typewriting  (transcripts) 

Office  practice 

EJcclivcs  {choose  1). 

Economic  history  since  1700 

Home  economics 

Science  with  industrial  aDPiications 


TWELFTH    year/ 


Business  English— theme  writing,  oral  reports  and  commercial  correspondence 

A  dvanced  American  history  and  citizenship 

Commercial  law  (5  periods  one-half  year) 

Economics  (5  penods  one-half  year) 

Secretarial  practice,  including  shorthand 

Transcription  and  typewriting 


1  It  is  strongly  urged  that  opportunity  be  found  for  part-time  work  during  the 
twelfth  year.  For  pupils  who  spend  alternate  weeks,  or  fortnights,  in  positions  the 
total  time  availal)le  in  s<hool  will  of  necessity  be  only  one-half  that  given.  For  such 
pupils  the  distribution  of  their  work  while  in  school  may  well  be  as  indicated  for  the 
twelfth  year, 

132799*'— 19 3 


18  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

Retail  selling  and  store  service  curriculum.^ 

ELEVENTH  YEAR. 


Periods 

per 
week. 


,  Required. 

English— Selected  reading  with  oral  and  written  composition. 
Salesmanship  and  merchandise 

EJectivcs  {choose  S). 

Economic  history  since  1700 

Science  (with  industrial  applications) 

Home  economics 


TWELFTH    YEAR. 


Business  English— theme  writing,  oral  reports,  and  commercial  correspondence. 

A  d  vanced  American  history  and  citizenship , . 

Salesmanship  and  retail  store  organization '. 

Store  practice  and  store  mathematics 


1  It  ig  essential  that  pupils  following  this  curriculum  have  store  experience.  This  is 
possible  on  the  part-time  arrangement  suggested  above,  but  additional  opportunities  will 
be  found  to  get  such  experience  from  work  on  Saturdays,  in  evenings,  on  holidays,  and 
during  school  vacations. 

•2  The  note  concerning  part-time  arrangements  on  page  17  applies  with  equal  force  here. 

In  presenting  the  curriculums  above  outlined,  the  committee  cau- 
tions schools  against  attempting  more  than  they  can  do  creditably. 
Manifestly  the  small  high  school  will  not  be  able  to  differentiate  in 
the  threefold  manner  above  suggested.  The  specialized  type  of  high 
school  or  the  large  comprehensive  high  school  will  find  the  curricu- 
lums above  suggested  entirely  feasible.  The  connnittee  feels,  how- 
ever, that  these  suggestions  are  of  value  even  to  those  administering 
commercial  education  in  the  small  high  school. 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  compare  these  curriculums  with  the  single 
curriculum  formulated  by  the  committee  of  nine  of  the  department 
of  business  education  of  the  National  Education  Association,  adopted 
by  the  department  in  1903  and  with  the  curriculums  of  the  committee 
on  research,  standardization  and  correlation  presented  to  the  same 
department  in  1915.  In  several  particulars  there  are  likenesses,  but 
progress  may  be  noted  in  16  years  in  the  development  of  new  subjects 
of  study,  and  in  the  possibility  of  more  highly  specialized  instruction 
in  the  field  of  commercial  education.  (See  Proceedings,  National 
Education  Association  for  years  named.) 

V.  NEED  FOR  DEFINITENESS  OF  AIM. 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  to  make  connnercial  training  definite 
and  for  a  specific  end ;  in  other  words,  what  the  business  world  now 
most  needs  is  not  J^oung  people  who  can  do  a  wide  variety  of  things 
indifferently,  but  those  who  can  do  one  thing,  or  relatively  feAv 


THE   COMMERCIAL  CURRICULUM.  19 

things  with  disxDatch  and  accurac3\  But  with  this  skill  there  should 
be  a  background  of  wider  knowledge  and  experience;  this  narrower 
field  can  then  serve  both  as  a  point  of  contact  and  a  place  of  depar- 
ture, for  from  this  beginning  there  can  usually  follow  the  natural 
and  easy  passing  over  into  other  business  activities. 

The  value  of  practical  experience  during  the  period  of  training  is 
so  great  that  steps  should  be  taken  to  overcome  any  obstacles  to  part- 
time  work.  These  obstacles  have  been  overcome  by  certain  high 
schools.  The  alternate-week  jolan  may  be  feasible  in  some  communi- 
ties, while  some  other  plan  ma}^  work  better  in  other  localities.  If 
the  alternate-week  plan  is  used,  only  those  firms  that  are  willing  to 
cooperate  in  the  education  of  the  boy  or  girl,  and  that  offer  worth- 
while future  opportunities  to  graduates,  should  be  select-ed.  Such 
firms  will  be  large  enough  to  insure  a  variety  of  office  experience,  and 
to  possess  an  organization  in  which  there  will  be  an  office  head  who 
can  each  week  connect  up  the  part-time  student  with  his  or  her  work. 

One  way  in  which  to  get  some  practical  experience  while  education 
is  going  on  is  for  the  person  pursuing  a  commercial  curriculum  to 
seek  employment  during  the  vacations,  and  on  afternoons,  evenings, 
ajid  Saturdays.  In  some  schools  pupils  obtain  practical  experience 
for  a  fixed  term  as  clerical  assistants  in  the  school  office.  The  pupil 
takes  dictation,  writes  actual  letters,  answers  the  telephone,  copies 
manuscripts,  tabulates  statistics,  and  prepares  financial  reports  and 
the  like.    Every  school  and  school  system  has  much  work  of  this  kind. 

VI.  RELATIONS  OF  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  TO  THE  BUSINESS 

COMMUNITY. 

Lack  of  interest  in  commercial  education  of  the  right  sort  on  the 
part  of  business  communities  has  hindered  its  development.  In 
Europe,  chambers  of  commerce  have  special  committees  on  education, 
and  practical  men  direct  and  support  commercial  schools.  In  many 
communities,  subventions  are  given  by  the  chambers  of  commerce 
for  the  support  of  these  schools.  But  in  America,  business  men  have 
not  generally  understood,  or,  if  they  have  understood,  they  have  not 
taken  an  active  interest  in,  this  type  of  education.  This  can  but  be 
regarded  as  unfortunate  from  considerations  of  business  on  the  one 
side  and  of  education  on  the  other.  Schools  of  salesmanship  have, 
however,  been  stimulated  by  various  national  and  local  commercial 
associations  and  by  private  establishments.  These  schools  have  not 
only  rendered  a  direct  service  to  the  associations  promoting  them, 
but  they  have  also  made  a  useful  contribution  to  the  subject  of 
salesmanship. 

The  committee  therefore  suggests  that  definite  relations  be  estab- 
lished between  the  commercial  curriculums  and  the  business  organiza- 


20  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

tions  of  the  communities  in  wliicli  tliey  are  set  up.  Committees  on 
education  may  well  be  established  by  chambers  of  commerce,  boards 
of  trade,  and  other  like  bodies.  Business  men  should  be  invited  to 
visit  the  schools  and  to  speak  to  the  pupils  on  the  branches  of  business 
with  Avhich  they  are  intimately  acquainted.  Suggestions  as  to  cur- 
riculums,  methods  of  study,  and  practical  applications  of  instruction 
may  well  be  invited  from  business  men.  The  pupils  of  commercial 
schools  should  be  taken  from  time  to  time  to  visit  business  offices, 
banks,  and  commercial  houses,  so  that  they  may  observe  the  activities 
of  the  business  world.  In  addition,  business  organizations,  such  as 
chambers  of  commerce  and  boards  of  trade,  may  sometimes  be  led 
to  offer  prizes  that  will  stimulate  particular  lines  of  commercial 
study.  Through  advisory  committees,  employment  may  be  found 
for  pupils  during  vacations,  and  other  points  of  contact  established 
between  the  schools  and  commercial  life. 

VII.  EDUCATIONAL  AIMS  OF  COMMERCIAL  CURRICULUMS. 

The  general  statement  of  aims  of  the  Commission  on  the  Eeorgani- 
zation  of  Secondary  Education  applies  to  all  types  of  secondary 
education.^  Pupils  preparing  for  business  should  first  of  all  have 
laid  in  their  lives  a  proper  physical  foundation.  They  should  have 
the  instruction  and  experience  which  will  prepare  them  effectively  to 
discharge  the  obligations  of  citizenship.  Over  and  above  this,  the 
instruction  should  furnish  a  background  for  an  appreciation  of  the 
finer  things  of  life  through  a  study  of  literature,  music,  and  art. 
To  the  foregoing  there  must  be  added,  of  necessity,  the  special  equip- 
ment which  will  enable  these  pupils  to  meet  the  demands  of  business. 
The  plea  of  the  committees  on  business  education  is  that  the  com- 
mercial curriculum  should  be  broad  enough  to  prepare  the  pupils  for 
entering  sympathetically  into  life  in  addition  to  giving  them  the 
capacity  to  do  at  least  one  kind  of  work  well. 

From  the  foregoing  general  statement,  and  particularly  from  an 
examination  of  the  curriculums  by  which  it  is  accompanied,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  committee  believes  that  secondary  commercial  education 
should  include  many  academic  subjects  of  study.  Moreover,  much  of 
the  work  in  English,  history,  science,  and  mathematics  is  possible  of 
commercial  interpretation  and  application.  Commercial  curriculums 
that  have  recognized  this  fact,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  while  pre- 
paring pupils  for  entering  into  commercial  life,  have  also  equipped 
them  for  the  living  of  a  larger  life  of  culture  and  social  service.  The 
committee,  therefore,  urges  the  combination  of  liberal  and  practical 
elements  so  that  without  impoverishing  commercial  curriculums 
they  can  be  made  to  prepare  young  people  for  business  life. 

»  See  "  Cardinal  principles  of  secondary  education."  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  1918, 
No.  35. 


THE   COMMERCIAL,   CURRICULUM.  21 

VIII.  THE  SHORT  CURRICULUM  CONSIDERED. 

In  the  earlier  developments  of  commercial  education  in  American 
secondary  schools  the  common  practice  was  to  give  one-year,  two- 
year,  and  three-year  curriculums.  A  later  development  excluded 
commercial  work  very  largely  from  the  first  two  years  of  the  high 
school  and  transferred  the  few  commercial  subjects  that  were  given 
to  the  third  and  fourth  years.  This  latter  practice  continues  in 
many  schools  even  to  the  present  time.  The  report  of  a  committee 
of  the  Department  of  Business  Education  of  the  National  Educa- 
tion Association,  in  1903,  pronounced  strongly  in  favor  of  the  four- 
year  curriculum  with  comm-ercial  work  in  each  of  the  four  years. 
Since  then  the  tendencies  have  been  in  that  direction.  The  demand 
for  a  short  course  still  continues,  however,  and,  as  this  demand  is  to 
some  extent  based  upon  valid  needs,  the  comniittee  has  kept  these 
needs  in  mind  but  has  indicated  a  different  solution  of  the  problem. 

The  committee  believes  that  when  it  is  desired  to  condense  all 
the  commercial  work  into  two  years,  the  plan  for  a  clerical  school 
suggested  above  should  be  adopted.  In  other  words,  highly  spe- 
cialized clerical  work  should  be  given  only  after  some  general  sec- 
ondary education  has  been  secured.  To  plan  for  the  completion  of 
the  entire  commercial  curriculum  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  or  tenth 
year  appears  to  the  committee  to  be  a  retrograde  step  in  commercial 
education.  The  committee  recognizes  that  many  young  people  must 
withdraw  from  school  before  the-  completion  of  the  full  high-school 
curriculum.  Some  have  not  the  ability  or  the  interest  to  complete 
such  a  curriculum.  Others  are  compelled  to  leave  because  of  condi- 
tions in  the  home.  Recognizing  these  facts  and  believing  that  boys 
and  girls  in  any  community  who  must  enter  upon  their  life  work 
with  a  comparatively  short  period  of  preparation  are  entitled  to 
fully  as  much  consideration  as  any  others,  the  committee  urges  that 
the  commercial  curriculum  be  so  shaped  in  the  eighth,  ninth,  and 
tenth  years,  that  these  years  will  not  only  lead  naturally  to  the  later 
years  in  the  curriculum  and  create  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  a 
desire  to  continue  in  attendance  to  the  end  of  the  course,  but  will 
also  fit  those  who  must  leave  school  at  the  end  of  any  school  year 
for  the  types  of  office  positions  which  boys  and  girls  of  that  age  can 
hope  to  fill  successfully.  This  can  not  be  accomplished  if  the  work  of 
the  early  years  is  vague  and  indefinite,  if  it  is  not  related  to  some- 
thing which  is  to  follow,  or  if  it  has  too  much  of  the  "deferred 
value  "  element  in  it.  Pupils  must  see  the  results  of  the  work  they 
are  doing,  and  see  these  results  at  close  range. 

>  In  the  curriculum  submitted  above  the  committee  has  attempted 
to  adapt  the  eighth  year  to  the  age  and  vocational  possibilities  of  the 
eighth-year  pupil;  to  include  in  the  ninth  year  subjects  that  will 


22  BUSINESS  EDUCATIOlsT  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

train  the  pupils  who  must  leave  at  the  end  of  this  3^ear  for  the  best 
kind  of  service  that  they  can  render;  and  to  extend  commercial 
training  in  the  tenth  year  to  a  point  where  pupils  who  finish  that 
part  of  the  course  are  well  prepared  for  as  large  a  number  of  clerical 
positions  as  they  can  possibly  be  prepared  for  in  that  length  of  time. 
At  the  end  of  the  eleventh  year,  pupils  are  qualified  for  a  higher 
type  of  business  position;  and  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  year  they 
are  fitted  for  the  best  positions  which  those  with  a  high-school  edu- 
cation can  hope  to  obtain.  In  this  wa^^  the  committee  believes  that 
it  has  provided  adequately  for  the  needs  of  all  classes  of  pupils, 
including  not  only  those  who  have  the  full  high-school  period  to 
devote  to  their  education,  but  also  those  who  can  remain  in  school 
only  one,  two,  or  three  years.  At  the  same  time,  students  who  enter 
upon  such  a  course  of  study  with  the  expectation  of  remaining  but 
one  or  two  years  msij  readily  continue  until  the  end  of  the  course 
if  the  way  opens  for  them  to  do  so. 

If  commercial  training  is  to  secure  and  hold  an  honored  place  in 
education,  it  must  not  only  provide  for  the  needs  of  those  who  must 
enter  business  at  an  early  age,  but  it  must  prepare  the  largest  pos- 
sible number  of  pupils  for  the  competitive  conditions  of  modern  busi- 
ness. A  conclusive  argument  for  a  commercial  curriculum  extending 
through  the  full  secondary-school  i^eriod  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  necessary  technical  facilit}^  and  a  reasonable  modicum  of  general 
intelligence  can  not  be  given  earlier  than  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
school  year.  The  committee  urges  that  the  rights  of  young  people 
themselves  forbid  the  introduction  of  a  short  course  of  the  kind  whicli 
attempts  to  fit  them  for  service  beyond  the  ability  of  the  immature 
boy  or  girl,  or  which  suggests  leaving  school  before  economic  neces- 
sity, or  other  reasons,  compel  withdrawal.  To  give  ill-prepared  and 
immature  boys  and  girls  a  highly  specialized  training  without  a 
background  of  intelligence  and  life  interest,  and  to  rush  these  young 
people  into  business  at  an  early  age,  appears  to  the  committee  like 
exploiting  children  either  to  commercial  greed  bf  employers,  or  to 
the  selfishness  and  shortsighted  prejudices  of  their  families.  It 
should  be  pointed  out  here  that  the  "  needs  of  the  communit}^ ''  can 
be  best  met  by  giving  full  regard  to  the  rights  of  young  people  them- 
selves. 

Finally,  the  committee  believes  that  its  suggested  curriculum  pro- 
vides adequately  for  the  needs  of  those  who  have  but  a  short  time 
to  remain  in  school,  and  this  without  sacrificing  those  who  are  for- 
tunate enough  to  be  able  to  complete  the  full  high-school  curriculum. 
The  committee  would  emphasize  that  the  short  curriculum  does 
not  and  can  not  lead  to  a  business  position  of  so  high  a  grade  or  to 
so  successful  a  commercial  life  as  would  be  possible  if  the  pupil 
had  taken  instead  a  curriculum  giving  a  broader  training. 


THE  COMMERCIAL  CURRICULUM.  23 

IX.  COMMERCIAL  WORK  IN  THE  SEVENTH,  EIGHTH,  AND  NINTH 

YEARS. 

The  question  has  insistently  been  asked,  when  may  commercial  in- 
struction properly  begin?  With  the  introduction  of  the  junior  high 
school,  there  has  been  the  temptation  to  transfer  to  this  school  highly 
specialized  instruction  in  shorthand,  typewriting,  and  bookkeeping. 
In  other  words,  the  aim  has  been  to  give  a  fairly  complete  technical 
training  by  the  completion  of  the  ninth  or  tenth  school  year.  The 
committee  regards  this  tendency  as  regrettable. 

The  committee  believes  that  "  try  out "  commercial  instruction  of  a 
general  character  may  well  be  given  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  school 
years.  Such  a  procedure  has  the  double  advantage  of  giving  all  the 
pupils  some  knowledge  of  commercial  affairs,  which  knowledge  will 
be  of  value  to  them  no  matter  what  line  of  work  they  may  later  enter 
upon;  and,  secondly,  it  gives  the  basis  for  an  intelligent  choice  of 
school  subjects.  Any  plan  which  requires  pupils  at  the  beginning  of 
the  seventh  or  the  eighth  school  year  to  make  a  choice  of  future  oc- 
cupation that  can  not  later  be  easily  changed  must  work  great  harm. 
At  this  time  they  have  not  had  the  experience,  nor  have  they  the 
knowledge,  to  choose  wisely.  If  the  choice  be  made  by  their  parents 
it  will,  in  many  cases,  be  made  from  prejudice  or  whim,  and  will  not 
be  based  on  the  pupil's  natural  abilities  and  inclinations,  nor  will 
the  choice  be  made  with  full  regard  for  the  pupil's  ultimate  larger 
good. 

It  is  further  our  opinion  that  the  commercial  education  of  the 
ninth  school  year  may  well  be  of  a  somewhat  general  character,  such 
as  giving  training  in  the  use  of  the  typewriter,  the  teaching  of  the 
fundamentals  of  accounts,  and  such  practical  applications  of  gen- 
eral subjects  as  will  serve  at  once  as  a  foundation  for  later  commer- 
cial instruction  and  be  of  practical  use  tc  those  who  must  leave 
school  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  year. 

Those  who  go  out  from  school  at  about  16  years  of  age  will  have 
the  largest  success,  and  the  most  abiding  satisfactions  in  life,  if  they 
have  a  fundamental  educational  equipment  which,  with  some  slight 
technical  facility,  will  make  them  of  value  when  it  is  necessary  for 
them  to  seek  employment.  An  office  boy  who  can  operate  the  type- 
writer, who  has  been  trained  in  the  fundamentals  of  accounts,  and 
taught  to  write  legibly,  can  fairly  meet  the  demands  made  upon  a 
junior  clerk  in  the  average  business  office.  If  the  pupil  must  leave 
school  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  school  year  and  has  the  equipment 
above  suggested,  it  will  be  possible  for  him  to  find,  in  many  com- 
munities, an  opportunity  for  continuing  his  education  in  the  con* 
tinuation  classes  where  the  more  highly  specialized  commercial 
instruction  can  be  given  to  better  advantage  than  in  the  seventh, 
eighth,  and  ninth  school  years. 


24  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

X.  SUITING  THE  CURRICULUM  TO  COMMUNITY  NEEDS. 

Manifestly  no  best  commercial  curriculum  can  be  made  for  all  com- 
munities, or  for  all  pupils  of  a  given  community.  There  are  a  few 
universal  subjects  in  commercial  education  sucli  as  penmanship,  the 
fimdamentals  of  bookkeeping,  commercial  arithmetic,  commercial 
geography,  commercial  law,  and  business  English  including  spelling. 
Even  some  of  these  are  a  bit  indefinite,  and  in  certain  quarters  ques- 
tions are  raised  as  to  their  practical  value.  The  committee,  however, 
holds  that  these  subjects  have  been  worked  out  with  sufficient  defi- 
niteness  to  make  them  valuable  as  instruments  of  education,  and  that 
they  may  be  so  taught  as  to  provide  a  foundation  for  specialized  com- 
mercial education. 

The  committee  has  not  deemed  it  wise  to  recommend  a  single  defi- 
nite and  fixed  commercial  curriculum.  It  regards  as  its  most  useful 
function,  not  the  recommendation  of  a  stereotyped  procedure,  but 
rather  the  statement  of  broad  principles  that  can  be  applied  to  the 
widely  diversified  situations  existing  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
The  curriculum  for  any  school,  or  group  of  pupils,  or  indeed  for  any 
pupil  should  be  worked  out  with  due  regard  to  the  time  and  oppor- 
tunity which  the  pupil  or  pupils  may  give  to  the  studies,  their  prob- 
able future  life  interests,  and  the  obvious  community  needs.  AYitli 
these  broad  considerations  in  view,  the  committee  has  outlined  a  cur- 
riculum possible  of  a  wide  adaptation.  It  may  be  that  in  certain 
cases  even  the  suggestions  made  are  not  sufficiently  comprehensive, 
but  if  the  principle  of  adapting  a  curriculum  to  the  needs  of  the 
pupils  and  the  community  has  been  established,  the  ends  which  the 
committee  sought  have  been  attained.  A  curriculum  can  readily  be 
worked  out  for  any  pupil  or  group  of  pupils  by  applying  the  princi- 
ples set  forth  in  this  section,  and  other  principles  presented  in  the 
earlier  sections  on  "  Types  of  Organizations  "  and  "  Purposes." 

A  curriculum  should  be  so  formulated  as  best  to  serve  the  com- 
munity in  which  it  is  maintained.  Most  schools  believe  that  they 
are  now  well  serving  their  community.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
many  schemes  of  commercial  education  have  been  made  with  insuffi- 
cient knowledge  of  the  actual  needs  of  the  commimities,  and  are  con- 
tinued without  any  certainty  as  to  whether  their  product  is  meeting 
those  needs  or  not. 

The  committee  on  business  education  urges  the  necessity  for  a  local 
educational  survey  to  determine  the  kind  of  commercial  education 
needed.  Such  a  survey  can  be  originated  and  promoted  by  the  school 
authorities,  but  to  be  effective  it  should  have  the  indorsement  and 
active  support  of  chambers  of  commerce  or  other  commercial  organi- 
zations. If  the  representatives  of  education  make  the  proper  pre- 
sentation of  the  survey  idea,  they  will  find  little  or  no  difficulty  in 


THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  25 

enlisting  cooperation  of  business  organizations.  The  survey  offers 
a  splendid  opportunity  for  cooperation  between  the  educational  and 
business  factors. 

If  a  competent  paid  investigator  can  be  secured  for  the  survey  the 
results  will  be  most  satisfactory.  If  such  an  investigator  is  not 
available,  the  list  of  the  business  houses  to  be  covered  may  be  dis- 
tributed among  commercial  teachers,  and  they  will  have  an  interest- 
ing and  helpful  experience  in  visiting  the  future  employers  of  the 
young  people  w^hom  they  are  to  educate,  and  they  will  themselves 
get  a  new  point  of  view  on  commercial  education.  Moreover,  if  the 
survey  is  made  by  the  teachers,  the  educational  process  will  begin 
with  a  better  understanding  and  closer  sympathy  between  the  schools 
and  the  community. 

If  teachers  are  not  available,  a  survey  should  be  undertaken  by 
correspondence,  but  this  method  is  open  to  misunderstandings  as  to 
the  information  desired,  why  it  is  sought,  and  also  as  to  the  meaning 
of  the  information  obtained.  Perhaps  the  greatest  of  the  difficulties 
is  that  in  a  large  number  of  cases  information  can  not  be  obtained  by 
correspondence. 

The  committee  submits  in  an  appendix  (p.  67)  a  questionnaire, 
which  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  a  survey.  This  should,  of  necessity, 
be  modified  to  meet  local  needs.  It  may  be  enlarged  in  certain  parts, 
e.  g.,  in  subdivisions  under  various  heads  to  make  the  information 
more  exact.  In  general,  it  is  better  to  ask  questions  which  can  be 
answered  b}^  a  check,  by  underscoring,  by  "yes"  or  "no,"  or  by  a 
single  word,  rather  than  questions  requiring  a  statement  at  length. 
If  the  information  is  to  be  solicited  by  mail,  the  questionnaire  should 
be  made  as  brief  as  possible  and  still  give  the  necessary  information. 

The  use  to  be  made  of  the  replies  is  all  important.  The  answers 
should  be  tabulated,  qualifications  and  amplifications  studied,  the  re- 
sults interpreted,  and  remedies  suggested.  A  summary  of  the  replies 
to  such  a  questionnaire  can  not  fail  to  be  of  interest,  not  only  to  the 
educational  authorities,  but  also  to  the  business  community.  Many 
school  systems  and  commercial  organizations  will  be  ready  to  print 
the  results  of  such  a  study.  A  few  cities  have  made  studies  of  this 
kind;  every  city  should  make  this  the  method  of  attack  on  the 
problem  of  furnishing  satisfactory  commercial  education.  Surveys 
of  the  sort  above  suggested  have  been  made  in  a  number  of  places, 
among  which  are  Boston,  Cleveland,  and  Eochester. 
132799°— 19 4 


PART  II.— SUGGESTIONS  REGARDING  COURSES  IN  THE 
COMMERCIAL  CURRICULUM. 


I.  ENGLISH. 


The  Committee  on  Business  Education  holds  that  English  is  the 
most  fundamental,  universal,  and  important  subject  of  the  commer- 
cial curriculum.  It  is  the  one  subject  without  which  all  the  others 
will  be  of  lessened  value.  The  committee,  therefore,  recommends 
that  English  be  required  from  the  first  of  the  seventh  year  to  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  year,  and  that  it  be  given  first  place  in  all  considera- 
tions of  time  and  methods  of  study. 

The  admirable  chapter  on  business  English  in  the  report  of  the 
National  Joint  Committee  on  English,  which  represented  the  Com- 
mission on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education  and  the 
National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English,  has  simplified  the  task  of 
this  committee.^  Some  aspects,  however,  call  for  further  considera- 
tion. 

First,  the  committee  urges  the  importance  in  the  commercial 
curriculum  of  instruction  and  training  in  the  use  of  oral  English. 
Probably  90  per  cent  or  more  of  English  used  in  business,  and  in 
life  generally,  is  oral,  and  yet  fully  75  per  cent  of  school  instruction 
in  English  has  been  in  written  work.  By  more  oral  work,  time  can 
be  saved  for  habit-forming  drill,  and  at  the  same  time  a  better 
command  of  the  English  language  can  be  secured.  Oral  reports, 
sales  talks,  verbal  instruction,  conversation,  etc.,  all  are  of  vital  im- 
portance. Frequent  short,  oral  reports  are  better  than  infrequent 
longer  prepared  papers.  Constant  practice,  not  intermittent  and 
occasional  effort,  is  necessary'  to  form  habits  of  correct  speaking  and 
writing.  The  oral  work  must,  of  course,  be  carefully  supervised. 
Students  must  be  taught  to  si)eak  with  enough  deliberation  to  insure 
clear  statement  and  correct  grammatical  expression.  Interruptions 
by  other  pux)ils  must  not  be  permitted,  as  they  tend  to  make  the 
speaker  hurry  faster  than  he  can  think.  Short-time  assignments 
enable  the  teacher  to  insist  that  the  pupil  who  has  the  floor  shall 
proceed  without  interruption  to  the  end.     Criticism  of  his  efforts 

1 U.   S.    Br.rcau  of  Education.     Bulletin,   1917,  No.  2,   "  Reorganization   of   English   in 
secondarj'  schools." 
26 


COURSES  IN  THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  27 

should  follow,  due  care  being  taken  to  suit  the  criticism  to  the  grade 
in  which  it  is  given,  and  to  keep  it  on  a  high  level. 

Daily  practice  in  understanding  and  executing  oral  orders  should 
be  given.  Business  men  justly  complain  that  few  boys  or  girls  can 
understand  an  order  that  contains  more  than  one  or  two  factors. 
The  office  boy  who  is  told  to  "  go  to  the  vertical  file  in  the  outer  office, 
pull  out  the  left  drawer  of  the  middle  section,  and  get  folder  num- 
ber 89,"  can  generally  be  counted  on  to  return  for  instructions  one 
or  more  times  before  accomplishing  the  assigned  task. 

Kegarding  selections  for  reading  the  committee  urges  that  con- 
sideration be  given  to  the  needs  of  commercial  students  throughout 
the  six  years  covered  by  the  report.  They  should  read  articles  on 
current  events,  many  of  which  will  be  found  in  the  high-grade  maga- 
zines and  leading  weeklies.  In  addition,  we  urge  that  a  part  of  the 
reading  deal  with  practical  affairs.  Such  a  classic  as  Franklin's 
Autobiography  will  serve  a  good  purpose  as  literature  and,  in  addi- 
tion, prepare  for  practical  life.  The  committee  also  urges  that  com- 
mercial students  read  some  of  the  great  inspirational  writings  of 
Shakespeare,  Milton,  Tennyson,  Stevenson,  and  also  the  best  repre- 
sentatives of  American  literature.  We  believe  that  freedom  from 
the  traditional  college  entrance  requirements  will  make  possible  the 
careful  selection  of  material  and  its  adaptation  to  the  specific  needs 
of  pupils  pursuing  this  curriculum.  Particularly  would  we  suggest 
the  desirability  of  reading  more  from  contemporary  literature  and 
from  writers  inmaediately  preceding  the  present  age.  More  detailed 
suggestions  for  the  six  years  of  the  curriculum  follow. 

SEVENTH  YEAR.  ' 

One-hundred- word  themes  ^nay  be  based  on  the  pupil's  experiences 
in  work  and  play,  using  as  far  as  possible  special  business  terms  and 
references  to  customs,  such  as  proprietor,  capital,  income,  expense, 
profit  and  loss.  Actual  class  experiments  may  be  conducted  in 
simple  business  transactions  involving  exchange  of  such  small  arti- 
cles as  pencils  and  notebooks.  Conversational  powers  should  be  de- 
veloped. These  themes  should  be  discussed  with  the  pupil  and  his 
suggestions  should  be  carefully  directed  and  criticized  in  such  a  way 
as  not  to  discourage  initiative. 

The  spelling  of  common  business  terms  as  well  as  of  new  words 
which  the  pupil  finds  in  his  reading  should  occupy  a  part  of  each 
English  period;  there  should  be  oft-repeated  drills  in  recognizing 
the  parts  of  speech  and  the  elements  of  the  sentence ;  drill  should  be 
given  on  phrases  and  clauses  of  simpler  forms;  the  use  of  comma 
and  period  should  be  taught. 


28  BUSINESS  EDUCATION  IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

EIGHTH  YEAR. 

Journeys  and  trips  may  be  organized  and  described;  description 
may  be  based  on  the  characters  in  the  stories  read  in  school  and  else- 
Avhere ;  discussion  of  simple  civic  topics,  such  as  elections,  candidates, 
public  improvements,  character  and  personality  of  leading  business 
men,  and  discussion  of  their  public  and  private  philanthropies,  will 
be  interesting  and  profitable ;  pupils  should  paraphrase  some  of  the 
selections  read ;  tests  should  be  given  in  rapid  silent  reading.  Forms 
of  composition  should  be  varied  as  much  as  possible;  expression  of 
thoughts  should  be  emphasized  as  the  principal  thing.  This  expres- 
sion should  be  both  oral  and  written.  The  teaching  of  the  forms 
and  uses  of  clauses  and  phrases,  connectives,  modifiei*s  of  the  subject 
and  predicate,  should  be  continued  from  the  seventh-year  work;  ap- 
plication should  receive  more  time  than  theory.  One  of  the  most 
common  faults  of  the  pupil  in  his  early  high-school  Avork  is  his  lack 
of  sentence  sense. 

In  this  year  practice  should  be  given  in  letter  writing  as  a  general 
subject.  Various  forms  of  letters  may  be  used  for  practice.  (Com- 
mercial correspondence  as  a  special  subject  is  suggested  for  the 
twelfth  year.) 

Only  such  elements  of  grammar  should  be  introduced  as  will  be 
useful  in  preventing  or  correcting  errors. 

NINTH  YEAR. 

By  the  end  of  this  year  a  pupil  should  be  able  to  tell  a  story 
clearly.  He  should  be  able  to  make  his  narrative  pointed,  with  a 
succession  of  events,  growing  in  interest,  and  reaching  a  climax.  He 
should  learn  the  value  of  w^ords  in  conducting  simple  business  trans- 
actions ;  letters  of  friendship  should  be  introduced,  such  as  notes  to 
absent  classmates.  Equal  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  oral  and 
written  expression.  The  pupil  should  learn  to  distinguish  clauses 
from  phrases,  and  the  various  types  of  each.  Drill  should  be  con- 
tinued on  parts  of  speech  and  kinds  of  sentences.  Spelling  work 
should  be  definitely  assigned  from  his  reading  aiid  from  business, 
as  in  the  preceding  year,  and  about  the  equivalent  of  one  full  period 
w^eekly  given  to  spelling,  defining,  and  using  the  words  in  sentences. 
No  written  work  should  be  accepted  that  contains  misspelled  words 
or  incomplete  statements.  All  composition  work  in  this  course 
should  so  far  as  possible  have  a  motive  that  is  comprehended  and 
approved  by  the  pupils  as  worth  while. 

TENTH  YEAR. 

Work  of  a  descriptive  nature  should  be  introduced  in  this  year, 
such  as  scenes  of  the  street,  market,  or  school,  vacation  experiences, 


COURSES  11^  THE   COMMEECIAL   CURRICULUM.  29 

impressions  of  people,  character  sketches  of  simple  type,  and  ex- 
periences in  some  form  of  practical  work.  The  simpler  forms  of 
business  letters  and  papers  may  be  introduced  in  the  last  half  of  this 
year.  The  pupil  of  this  age  is  too  immature  for  the  more  intricate 
business  problems.    Continue  spelling  work  as  in  the  ninth  year. 

ELEVENTH  YEAR. 

With  the  eleventh  year  the  pupil  begins  a  more  specific  study  of 
the  business  letter.  The  easier  forms  should  be  taught,  such  as 
'order  letters,  requests  for  information,  letters  of  recommendation. 
There  should  be  expository  themes  on  business  topics  with  which 
the  pupil  is  familiar  through  observation;  explanation  of  the  uses 
of  the  tyjDewriter  or  other  business  aids ;  his  impressions  of  men  and 
events.    Continue  frequent  practice  in  spelling. 

TWELFTH  YEAR. 

In  the  last  year  oral  English  should  receive  added  attention. 
Oral  reports  should  be  made  of  visits  to  factories  and  offices.  Class 
debates  and  discussions  on  timely  topics  of  a  commercial  or  civic 
nature  can  be  of  great  value.  Formal  study  of  parliamentary  prac- 
tice should  be  given.  Opportunity  may  be  given  for  set  declama- 
tions before  the  class  or  the  school,  but  extemporaneous  speaking 
should  receive  the  greater  attention.  The  work  in  business  corre- 
spondence begnin  in  the  eleventh  year  may  be  made  more  complex  as 
the  pupil  studies  circular  and  sales  letters,  the  reply  to  complaints, 
requests  for  remittance,  and  the  telegram  and  cablegram.  Mimeo- 
graphed letters  of  inquiry  may  be  handed  to  pupils,  possibly  with 
marginal  notes  as  to  how  the  letter  is  to  be  answered.  The  pupil 
may  then  be  required  to  write  the  answer.  This  has  been  found  to 
be  a  valuable  exercise.  Drill  in  spelling  of  classified  lists  of  words 
should  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  work. 

Wliile  commercial  correspondence  and  business  English  are  sug- 
gested in  the  other  years  of  this  curriculum,  special  attention  should 
be  given  to  them  in  the  twelfth  year.  It  is  probable  that  a  textbook 
dealing  with  commercial  correspondence  can  be  used  with  greater 
profit  in  the  twelfth  year  and  more  formal  instruction  given  in  letter 
writing  than  in  the  years  preceding. 

CONCLUSION. 

^  In  taking  stock  of  the  English  needs  in  the  commercial  curriculum, 
the  following  concluding  observations  are  offered.  The  business 
man  demands  exact  knowledge  in  the  following  fundamentals :  Spell- 
ing, capitalization,  syllabication,  abbreviations  and  contractions, 
simple  punctuation,  a  reasonable  working  vocabulary,  paragraphing^ 


so  BUSII^TESS  EDUCATTOlvr  IN  SECOXDARY  SCHOOLS. 

proper  arrangement  of  a  business  letter,  and  ability  to  copy  rough 
draft  correctly.  He  also  expects  the  boy  or  girl  who  enters  his 
employment  with  high-school  training  to  be  able  to  understand  sim- 
ple directions  and  to  express  himself  or  herself  intelligibly  in  spoken 
and  written  English.  These  demands  are  surely  not  unreasonable, 
and  yet  the  high-school  graduate  is  often  deficient  in  these  funda- 
mentals. For  example,  frequent  analyses  of  shorthand  transcripts 
show  that  not  less  than  80  per  cent  of  the  mistakes  are  due  to  ignor- 
ance of  the  fundamentals  of  English,  and  only  20  per  cent  to  faulty 
shorthand.  This  is  a  condition  for  which  there  is  no  satisfactory^ 
excuse. 

Business  English,  and  all  effective  EngUsh  instruction,  is  based 
on  the  assumption  that  ^ood  English  is  a  matter  of  habit.  No 
amount  of  unapplied  instruction  in  technical  grammar  will  correct 
the  weaknesses  to  which  reference  has  been  made. 

II.  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES. 

The  value  of  a  foreign  language  in  the  commercial  curriculum  has 
been  questioned.  Some  who  have  had  much  experience  hold  that  it 
has  little  value.  This  committee,  however,  believes  not  only  that  it 
has  a  cultural  and  educational  value  but  also  that  such  study  is  a 
practical  necessity  where  there  is  any  broad  consideration  of  com- 
mercial education  for  foreign  trade.  In  the  foreign  schools  of  com- 
merce much  time  is  given  to  foreign-language  w^ork,  resulting  in  a 
proficiency  sa'dly  wanting  in  American  schools.  In  European 
schools  pupils  learn  to  converse  in  a  foreign  tongue  and  to  use  the 
language  in  correspondence  with  fair  success.  If  these  results  are  to 
be  secured  in  American  schools,  the  language  should  be  begim  earlier, 
more  time  should  be  devoted  to  it,  and  a  direct  and  practical  method 
should  be  adopted  instead  of  depending  so  largelv  on  a  study  of 
grammatical  forms. 

The  committee  has  recommended  a  possible  four  3- ears  of  a  foreign 
language  with  a  liberal  time  allotment  throughout.  In  the  opinion 
of  the  committee,  when  the  language  is  elected,  it  should  be  con- 
tinued for  at  least  three  years.  In  large  schools  three  languages 
should  be  offered  as  electives. 

The  new  alignment  growing  out  of  the  World  War  brings  Spanish 
to  the  front  and  presents  to  American  schools  a  special  inducement 
to  undertake  its  study.  An  unprecedented  opportunity  lies  before 
American  business  men  to  establish  new  commercial  relations  with 
the  Latin- American  Eepublics,  but  for  this  purpose  a  working  knowl- 
edge of  the  language  spoken  in  most  of  these  Eepublics  is  necessary. 
French  is  important  as  a  language  of  diplomacy  and  international 
communication.  The  necessity  for  Spanish  and  French  has  grown, 
due  to  the  World  War. 


COURSES  IN   THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  31 

The  texts  to  be  read  by  commercial  students  should  include  mod- 
ern as  well  as  classical  writings.  By  the  use  of  modern  texts,  pres- 
ent-day interests  will  be  stimulated,  the  vocabulaiy  of  present-day 
life  will  be  taught,  and  contact  with  current  affairs  will  be  estab- 
lished. 

In  large  schools  a  few  typewriters,  equipped  with  modified  vowels, 
accents,  and  commonly  used  symbols,  make  possible  actual  experience 
in  typing  dictation  in  the  foreign  language,  and  hence  promote  close 
cooperation  between  the  language  instruction  and  the  practical  work 
in  typewriting. 

The  introduction  of  current  magazines  in  the  foreign  language 
and  the  use  of  the  advertisements  in  such  magazines  enlarges  the  vo- 
cabulary and  increases  the  interest.  Classes  may  visit  with  profit 
the  foreign  correspondence  departments  of  commercial  houses  and 
through  such  houses  they  may  assemble  a  file  of  genuine  letters, 
based  on  business  experience. 

III.  SCIENCE. 

Obviously  it  will  be  impossible  to  include  all  phases  of  science  in 
a  curriculum  designed  primarih^  to  furnish  adequate  training  for 
business  pursuits.  The  wide  applications  of  science  to  industry, 
and  in  the  everyday  experiences  of  people  in  general  and  of  com- 
mercial workers  in  particular,  however,  entitle  it  to  as  large  a  place 
in  the  commercial  curriculum  as  this  limiting  condition  will  permit. 
Selected  portions  of  biologic  and  natural  science  should  be  offered ; 
the  specific  needs  of  pupils,  and  the  conditions  and  limitations  of 
schools,  will  largely  determine  what  should  be  included  and  what  of 
necessity  must  be  excluded. 

It  is  not  possible  in  this  report  to  go  into  a  detailed  statement  of 
science  courses.^  Certain  essential  attributes  of  subject  matter  and 
method  of  teaching  for  commercial  students  may  be  regarded  as 
established.  Those  who  take  commercial  courses  in  the  high  schools 
do  not  as  a  rule  go  to  college ;  whatever  useful  knowledge  of  science 
they  are  to  possess,  therefore,  must  be  acquired  during  the  high 
school  period.  The  science  taught  must  be  of  immediate  practical 
value,  rather  than  of  the  deferred  value  type.  Biology,  for  example, 
should  not  deal  with  abstract  scientific  principles  as  a  basis  for 
further  study,  but  should  be  confined  largely  to  the  immediately  use- 
ful phases  of  the  subject.  The  commercial  student  needs  to  know 
about  those  principles  of  biologic  science  which  have  to  do  with 
physical  fitness  for  useful  living.  He  should  be  taught  how  to  reach 
his  maximum  efficiency  in  business  life;  that  physical  as  well  as 

1  Detailed  recommendations  for  science  teaching  will  appear  in  the  report  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Science. 


32  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IX   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

mental  health  is  essential  to  accomplish  big  things  in  this  busy  world ; 
what  factors  contribute  to  perfect  health  and  what  factors  under- 
mine tt.  He  should  also  be  shown  how  science  plays  its  part,  not 
only  in  the  personal  affairs  of  men,  but  also  in  civic  affairs.  Public 
health  can  be  safeguarded  in  no  other  way  than  by  an  intelligent 
application  of  scientific  principles  in  the  solution  of  the  many  social 
and  economic  problems  of  modern  life. 

In  a  commercial  course  in  biologic  science,  insects  and  other  lower 
forms  of  animal  life  should  be  studied  with  emphasis  on  their  rela- 
tion to  the  production,  storage,  and  marketing  of  commercial  prod- 
ucts, rather  than  upon  their  place  in  a  scientific  classification  of  the 
orders  of  animal  life.  The  special  adaptability  and  value  of  certain 
larger  animals  for  purposes  of  transportation  is  of  interest  to  com- 
mercial students.  Plant  culture  as  a  factor  in  the  development  of 
certain  raw  materials  of  commerce  is  important  to  students  prepar- 
ing to  enter  business  pursuits. 

Physics  or  chemistry  for  commercial  students  should  similarly  be 
related  to  actual,  everyday  experience  and  industry.  Wherever  pos- 
sible, each  topic  should  first  be  considered  in  its  larger  aspects  as  it 
normally  relates  itself  in  actual  experience.  As  such  it  becomes  a 
problem  which  already  has  been  observed  in  its  general  character  and 
perhaps  understood  in  part,  but  which  has  never  been  fully  analyzed. 
From  this  first  view  it  is  possible  to  proceed  to  the  study  of  details 
so  far  as  such  study  will  be  profitable,  and  the  controlling  laws  of 
physics  and  chemistry  may  be  singled  out  and  studied  in  connection 
with  their  concrete  applications.  As  a  further  means  of  making  both 
biologic  and  physical  science  real  and  usable  for  commercial  students, 
opportunities  should  be  utilized  for  field  excursions  and  visits  to 
local  power  stations,  manufacturing  plants,  and  chemical  works. 

To  those  responsible  for  science  instruction  is  left  the  task  of 
working  out  definite  syllabi  that  will  establish  science  courses  that 
are  in  harmony  with  this  general  statement  of  principles.  It  is 
hoped  that  rapid  progress  may  be  made  in  the  direction  indicated  so 
that  the  needs  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  boys  and  girls  who 
are  pursuing  commercial  courses  may  be  met  successfully. 

IV.  SOCIAL  STUDIES. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

The  social  studies — geography,  history,  civics,  and  economics — are 
essential  in  the  commercial  curriculum  to  develop  an  active,  intelli- 
gent citizenship  and  for  vocational  efficiency. 

The  time  heretofore  devoted  to  the  social  studies  in  the  commer- 
cial curriculum  has  not  been  adequate  to  prepare  for  the  needs  of 
citizenship.    In  the  reconstruction  period  following  the  Great  War 


COURSES  IN  THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  33 

the  xVnierican  citizen  will  need  an  even  broader  outlook  on  conditions 
abroad,  and  a  clearer  understanding  of  economic  and  social  condi- 
tions at  home.  For  those  who  are  to  enter  commercial  occupations  the 
social  studies  are,  and  will  continue  to  be,  especially  important  be- 
cause business  itself  is  a  social  undertaking.  True  success  in  business 
necessitates  an  understanding  of  social  needs  and  social  institutions, 
including  a  knowledge  of  economic  principles  and  their  applications. 
The  business  world  is  recognizing  to  an  increasing  degree  not  only  its 
dependence  upon  sound  economic  principles,  but  also  its  peculiar  re- 
sponsibilities in  promoting  the  welfare  of  society.  For  these  reasons 
the  commercial  curriculum  should  provide  thorough  training  in  the 
social  studies. 

1.  ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY: 
EIGHTH  YEAR.    (TERMS   1   AND   2.) 

Geography  instruction  in  the  commercial  curriculum  should  have 
a  practical  rather  than  a  scientific  aim.  A  well-planned  course  in 
geography  will  give  at  once  a  minimum  of  facts  which  are  valuable, 
and  more  important,  the  power  to  acquire  other  facts,  and  to  make 
the  application  of  facts  to  the  broader  fields  of  commercial  interest. 

Children  of  the  eighth  school  year  can  appreciate  the  relations  of 
physical,  commercial,  and  political  geography,  and  these  relations 
should  be  presented  with  new  emphasis.  The  division  of  a  continent 
into  its  natural  geographic  regions  or  physical  features,  the  occupa- 
tions and  habits  of  men  as  the  result  of  such  environment,  the  po- 
litical divisions,  and  the  relations  of  these  divisions  to  the  world  at 
large  is  a  fascinating  study  from  a  new  angle.  Presented  in  such 
fashion,  there  is  laid  a  solid  foundation  for  the  study  of  the  indus- 
trial and  commercial  geography  which  is  suggested  to  follow  in  the 
tenth  year. 

The  geography  of  the  eighth  year  should  afford  a  new  view  of  the 
geography  studied  earlier  with  an  appreciation,  interpretation,  and 
application  of  geographical  facts.  Much  of  the  problem  element, 
the  why  of  geography,  can  be  introduced  in  this  year.  Advantages 
of  regions  for  certain  lines  of  production  or  for  particular  indus- 
tries can  be  emphasized.  Special  commodities  may  be  studied  in 
their  relation  to  the  development  of  countries,  their  dependence  upon 
the  human  factor,  and  the  contribution  they  have  made  to  social 
welfare. 

Few  subjects  open  so  fruitful  a  field  as  does  elementary,  industrial, 
and  commercial  geography  for  stimulating  interests  and  making  an 
all-around  contribution  to  the  commercial  curriculum.  The  study 
of  occupations,  history,  social  science,  and,  to  some  extent  general 
science,  all  may  be  drawn  upon  and  related  to  this  subject. 

132799°— 19 5 


34  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS. 

The  committee  would  emphasize  one  basal  need  which  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  eighth  year  should  supply,  viz,  the  teaching  of  a  certain 
minimum  of  place  geography.  By  review  and  drill  work  the  most 
outstanding  facts  of  place  geography  can  be  fixed.  This  is  the  fur- 
nishing of  intelligence,  the  giving  of  necessary  general  information, 
and  it  is  in  addition  supplying  the  necessary  facts  which  the  pupil 
of  the  commercial  curriculum  must  use,  first,  in  the  later  study  of 
commercial  and  industrial  geogi-aphy,  and  of  other  subjects  in  the 
curriculum,  and  ultimately  in  an  intelligent  following  of  his  chosen 
calling. 

2.  COMMUNITY  CIVICS. 

Community  civics  which  may  be  treated  as  elementary  sociology, 
comes  at  a  time  when  the  pupil  is  sufficiently  mature  to  consider  the 
various  elements  of  community  welfare  with  which  the  course  deals, 
and  when  he  may  appreciate  and  acquire  the  social  point  of  view. 
Community  civics  offers  the  means  for  socializing  the  courses  in 
geography,  history,  and  economics  which  are  to  follow. 

The  aims,  methods,  and  content  of  a  course  in  community  civics 
are  outlined  in  a  report  of  the  commission  entitled,  "  The  Teaching  of 
Community  Civics,"  Bulletin,  1915,  No.  23,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. The  course  would  be  designated  "  Elementary  sociology  "  were 
it  not  that  such  a  title  might  suggest  a  treatment  too  advanced  for 
the  ninth-year  student.  As  outlined,  the  course  is  concrete  and  di- 
rectly adapted  to  the  needs  of  students  of  the  year  named.  The 
main  topics  are  such  elements  of  community  welfare  as  health,  pro- 
tection of  life  and  property,  recreation,  education,  civic  beauty,  com- 
munication, transportation,  migration,  charities,  and  correction.  The 
study  is  not  limited  to  local  aspects  of  these  topics,  for  State  and 
Nation  are  communities  just  as  truly  as  are  town  or  city.  This 
course  should  not  stress  the  machinery  of  government,  rather  it 
should  treat  government  as  an  agency  whereby  the  welfare  of  the 
community  is  promoted.  In  other  words,  government  is  important, 
because  it  is  the  means  to  the  great  end  of  social  welfare. 

3.  INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY:  TENTH  YEAR.      (TERMS  1  AND  2.) 

.  Industrial  and  commercial  geography  is  of  fundamental  value  in  a 
liberal  education  for  business.  But  the  field  of  geogi-aphy  is  vast 
and  its  subject  matter  is  prolific.  Moreover,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult 
to  delimit  it  from  general  science,  and  when  the  subject  has  been  de- 
limited it  is  difficult  to  formulate  a  logical  sequence  in  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  subject  matter,  to  set  forth  the  topics  of  greatest  value, 
and  to  train  the  student  to  reason  from  cause  to  effect.  But  prop- 
erly presented,  geography  offers  an  excellent  opportunity  for  train- 
ing the  logical  faculty  and  for  widening  the  horizon  of  the  student 
in  matters  of  everyday  interest.  • 


COURSES   IN   THE    COMMERCIAL    CURRICULUM.  35 

The  common  treatment  of  commercial  geography  in  the  United 
States  has  been  borrowed  from  an  English  text  by  Chisholm.  His 
volume  consisted  of  800  or  more  pages.  Our  American  texts  for 
high  schools  have  attempted  to  cover  the  same  field  in  400  much 
smaller  pages.    The  result  has  been  disastrous. 

Hence  it  is  necessary  to  establish  standards  in  subject  matter  and 
methods  of  presentation.  The  method,  presented  by  Prof.  Goode, 
in  the  committee  report,  Department  of  Business  Education,  Na- 
tional Education  Association,  1916,  suggests  an  approach  to  the 
study  of  industry  and  commerce  through  the  chief  commodities  of 
commerce  (sometimes  called  the  "commodity  treatment").  This 
leads  to  a  study  of  the  geographic  influences  affecting  the  produc- 
tion and  movement  of  a  given  commodity  (sometimes  called  the  "  re- 
gional treatment ") .  The  Teacher's  Manual  of  Geography  for  Grades 
VII  and  VIII,  published  by  the  State  board  of  education  of  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1918,  advocates  what  is  termed  the  "  economic  treatment." 
Both  the  commodity  and  regional  treatments  have  been  made  more 
or  less  familiar  to  the  pupils  through  the  grades,  while  the  economic 
treatment  introduces  a  different  method  of  approach  calculated  to 
arouse  the  more  mature  pupil's  interest. 

The  economic  treatment  of  industrial  and  commercial  geography 
finds  its  unifying  idea  in  four  great  fields:  I.  Primary  production: 
(1)  Farming,  (2)  lumbering,  (3)  mining,  and  (4)  fishing;  II. 
Transportation;  III.  Manufacturing;  IV.  Consumption. 

The  organization  of  the  content  of  commercial  geography  coincides 
with  daily  experience.  In  his  comings  and  goings  the  pupil  can 
scarcely  avoid  seeing  work  done  in  one  of  the  fields  of  production, 
distribution,  or  consumption.  Each  observation  may  be  used  as 
the  basis  of  a  problem.  From  local  beginnings  the  study  may  well 
lead  first  to  other  parts  of  the  State,  then  to  the  section,  to  the 
United  States,  and  finally  to  all  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Throughout  the  work  the  connection  with  the  local  starting  point 
should  be  emphasized.  The  study  of  local  industries  should  serve 
as  a  point  of  contact  for  industrial  and  commercial  geography.  The 
community  will  determine  which  of  the  four  fields  above  mentioned 
should  receive  most  attention.  A  manufacturing  district  should 
place  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  time  on  transportation,  manufactur- 
ing, and  consumption.  A  farming  region  should  give  the  larger 
part  of  the  time  to  primary  production.  At  least  half  of  the  year 
should  be  given  to  the  United  States  and  the  other  half  to  the  study 
of  other  parts  of  the  world,  always  with  reference  to  the  United 
States.  In  such  comparisons,  stronger  emphasis  should  be  placed 
on  natural  geographic  regions  rather  than  on  political  divisions. 
This  will  coordinate  with  the  plan  of  study  suggested  above  for  the 


36  BUSINESS   EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

earlier  years,  and  will  eliminate  the  necessity  for  too  much  attention 
to  rapidly  changing  world  politics. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  making  comparisons ;  relative  areas  and 
populations  should  be  considered.  Census  reports  and  Goveniment 
statistics  furnish  valuable  stimuli  for  projects  and  problems.  A 
comprehensive  list  of  references,  statistics,  trade  reports,  etc.,  should 
be  made  up.  Current  events  of  economic  and  commercial  importance 
make  an  interesting  pcint  of  contact  for  the  modern  wide-awake 
boy  and  girl;  nor  should  the  advertisements  met  in  daily  readings 
be  neglected. 

It  is  to  be  presumed  that  any  one  of  the  four  fields  in  the  economic 
treatment  may  be  used  as  the  point  of  attack  in  a  series  of  lessons. 
The  community  interests  and  needs  will  determine  the  amount  of 
time  and  emphasis  to  be  placed  on  the  different  sections.  The  ne- 
cessity of  trips — many  and  varied — ^to  farms,  factories,  docks, 
wharves,  freight  yards,  and  commercial  houses  can  not  be  urged  too 
strongly.  The  attitude  and  questions  of  the  pupils  on  such  excur- 
sions will  suggest  modes  of  procedure  which  no  cut-and-dried  plan 
can  remotely  hope  to  bring  about.  The  reading*  and  making  of 
charts  and  graphs  is  a  most  helpful  exercise  at  this  stage  of  develop- 
ment. The  outline  below  is  suggestive  for  subject  matter  only — 
methods,  problems,  etc.,  must  be  determined  by  the  circumstance 
and  necessity  of  the  various  divisions  as  they  are  put  to  use. 

The  following  brief  outline  for  a  study  of  the  principal  commer- 
cial commodities  and  the  leading  trading  countries  will  serve  as  a 
basis  for  the  work  :^ 

I.  Brief   introduction: 

1.  The  geographic  influences  underlying  industry  and  commerce. 

2.  Position  on  the  earth  as  determining  climate. 

3.  Land  relief;  barriers  of  mountain  or  dissected  land;  passes  and  val- 

ley routes  through  highland  barriers;  plains  and  their  influence. 

4.  Mineral  resources;  character,  distribution,  accessibility. 

5.  Plant  and  animal  life,  wild  and  cultivated,  as  a  basis  of  commerce. 

6.  Human  life  and  development,  especially  as  bearing  on  industry  and 

commerce ;  stage  of  industrial  development ;  education  and  training ; 
population  density ;  wealth  ;  and  Government  participation  in  indus- 
try and  commerce. 
II.  The  chief  commodities  of  commerce : 

1.  Products  of  the  farm,  orchard,  and  range:  The  cereals,  sugar,  fruits, 

vegetables,  beverages,   drugs,  animal  products. 

2.  Products  of  hunting  and  fishing :  Furs  and  fish. 

3.  Products  of  the  forest:  Lumber,  rubber  and  other  gums,  cork,  dyes, 

dngs,  etc. 

4.  Prodlicts  of  mines,  quarries,  and  wells:  The  mineral  fuels,  iron    and 

other  common  metals,  the  precious  metals  and  stones,  cement,  clay 
products,  etc. 

5.  Power  as  a  commodity. 

1  Goode,  J.  Paul,  Commercial  Geography,  N.  E.  A.  Report,  1916. 


COURSES   IN   THE    COMMERCIAL    CURRICULUM.  37 

III.  The  geographic  influences  in  commerce: 

1.  Advantage  of  position  with  reference  to  trade. 

2.  The  development  of  land  routes  of  trade. 

3.  Winds  and  currents  and  the  great  ocean  routes. 

4.  The  organization  of  ocean  commerce. 

5.  The  development  of  market  foci. 

lY.  Leading  commercial  countries  and  their  commerce: 

1.  Selected  important  countries,  studied  as  to  commercial  development 

and  possibilities. 

2.  The  growth  of  world  trade  and  the  part  played  by  leading  lands. 

The  countries  might  be  chosen  in  the  following  order:  United  States 
of  America  ;  Brazil ;  the  United  Kingdom  ;  British  India ;  Germany ; 
Russia ;  France ;  the  Argentine,  etc.,  contrasting  a  highly  developed 
country  with  a  new  or  undeveloped  land,  a  temperate  climate  land 
with  a  tropical  land,  and  so  on. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  method  of  study,  showing  the  thought- 
provoking  possibilities  of  the  subject,  subtopics  may  be  indicated  in 
the  study  of  wheat,  as  follows:  (1)  Origin  and  plant  characteristics 
of  wheat,  climate  and  soil  required,  types  and  qualities  of  Avheat,  re- 
lations between  plant  characters  and  the  climatic  conditions  in  place 
of  origin;  (2)  vvorld's  wheat-producing  areas,  the  reasons  for  their 
location  and  rank;  (3)  influence  of  climate,  soil,  surface,  labor  con- 
ditions, the  use  of  machinery,  transportation  facilities,  and  skill  of 
the  farmer;  (4)  problems  of  milling,  marketing,  establisliment  of 
world-market  center,  and  the  method  of  fixing  the  price;  (5)  wheat 
in  international  commerce  and  politics;  (6)  the  problem  of  the  wheat 
supply  of  the  future. 

Or,  if  a  mineral  commodity  be  taken,  say,  iron,  the  subtopics 
might  be:  (1)  The  qualities  of  iron  which  make  it  valuable,  the  sig- 
nificance of  iron  in  the  civilization  of  the  race;  (2)  the  chief  iron- 
producing  regions  of  the  vv^orld;  (3)  methods  of  mining  the  ore  in 
France,  Spain,  Sweden,  and  the  Lake  Superior  region;  (4)  the  trans- 
portation of  the  ore,  the  role  of  coke  and  limestone';  (5)  rank  of 
X)roducing  regions;  (6)  the  world's  present  steel  centers,  with  the 
reasons  for  their  location  and  rank;  (7)  the  revolution  wrought  in 
industry  and  commerce  by  the  introduction  of  cheap  steel;  (8)  chang- 
ing rank  of  nations  in  iron  and  steel  production;  (9)  significance  of 
Government  participation  in  the  industry. 

The  commodities  should  be  studied  from  an  economic  as  well  as 
from  a  geographic  point  of  view,  and  geographic  and  economic  influ- 
ences underlying  industry  and  commerce  should  be  sought  at  every 
stage  of  the  study.  This  makes  the  subject  a  fascinating  field  for 
both  teacher  and  pupil.  While  the  principles  of  industrial  and  com- 
mercial geography  are  enduring  its  data  are  in  continual  flux,  de- 
pending upon  changes  in  the  weather-  in  market  conditions,  and  in 
international  political  relations.  For  these  reasons  commercial 
geography  requires  thorough  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 


38  BUSIK-ESS   EDUCATI0:N'   11^   SECOls^DARY  SCHOOLS. 

But  the  reward  of  such  a  study  is  found  in  the  exhihiration  of  a 
constantly  widening  horizon,  and  of  migration  out  of  a  provincial 
fram^  of- mind.  There  is  a  continual  incentive  to  follow  develop- 
ments in  the  special  Government  reports,  the  studies  published  in 
periodicals,  and  the  shifting  observations  of  the  daily  press. 

4.  ECONOMICS. 

The  newer  and  more  correct  idea  of  economics  includes  a  wide 
range  of  descriptive,  historical,  and  theoretical  material  regarding 
our  present  industrial  and  commercial  order.  Economics,  broadly, 
is  the  science  of  wealth,  dealing  with  its  production,  distribution,  ex- 
change, and  consumption.  The  study  ma}^  well  be  defined  as  a 
science  of  husiness.  Men  who  do  business  in  any  sphere  are  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously  employing  economics,  just  as  one  who 
navigates  a  ship  uses  astronomy,  an  engineer  uses  physics,  or  a 
manufacturer  uses  chemistry.  Economics,  as  thus  conceived,  is  not 
narrowly  the  science  of  getting  money :  it  is  the  science  of  welfare,  and 
its  study  is  important  to  the  individual,  the  family,  the  state,  and 
the  world  at  large.  Fundamentally,  economics  is  the  science  which 
shows  how  individuals,  and  associations  of  individuals,  can  provide 
their  necessary  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  and  whatever  else  is 
deemed  a  proper  part  of  their  life. 

In  determining  the  value  of  economics,  we  may  first  consider  its 
value  to  the  individual.  In  brief,  this  subject  teaches  men  to  care 
for  themselves  and  those  directly  dependent  upon  them.  Economics 
deals  with  such  fundamentals  as  returns  from  labor,  employment  of 
capital  in  profitable  production,  and  investments  of  savings.  If  the 
study  did  no  more  than  lead  men  to  provide  for  their  own  future,  it 
would  be  well  worth  a  ]3lace  in  schools  which  prepare  for  life.  Too 
often  men  act  like  children  or  savages,  sacrificing  the  future  larger 
good  for  a  present  slight  pleasure.  Economics  should  teach  the  in- 
dividual to  live  for  the  better  things  of  the  more  remote  future.  The 
possibility  and  the  wisdom  of  small  savings,  and  knowledge  of  the 
value  of  savings  banks  and  building  and  loan  associations  should  be 
a  part  of  the  preparation  for  complete  livingv  Those  trained  to 
understand  the  meaning  of  savings  will  understand  that  a  limited 
amount  set  aside  each  year  affords  a  guaranty  for  future  safet3^ 

Economics  should  include  also  a  presentation  of  the  duty  which 
everyone  owes  to  posterity  to  preserve  and  perpetuate  material  bless- 
ings, so  that  each  generation  may  rise  to  a  higher  plane  of  living 
than  would  otherwise  be  possible. 

Economics  should  teach,  in  the  next  place,  that  the  range  of  occu- 
pations commonly  termed  "business"  are  of  real  service  to  society; 
that  the  business  man  is  responsible  for  a  larger  circle  than  his  im- 


COURSES  IN  THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  S9 

mediate  family ;  and  that  those  who  are  in  legitimate  forms  of  busi- 
ness are  helping  to  feed,  clothe,  and  shelter  their  fellows.  Thus 
business  will  be  given  its  true  place  in  the  list  of  occupations. 

Economics  should  furnish  a  largeness  of  view  by  which  men  can 
recognize  the  rights  of  others  and  see  the  interdependent^e  of  all  the 
factors  in  the  modern  industrial  system.  Class  distinctions  are  the 
most  baneful  influence  of  the  j)resent  age.  Landlords  are  often 
against  tenants,  employers  against  employed,  and  other  antagonisms 
exist  which  threaten  the  safety  of  society.  Ignorance  and  self-inter- 
est have  led  to  a  partial  and  prejudiced  view  of  economic  rela- 
tions, and  too  largely  our  economic  system  is  that  of  a  primitive 
society  in  which,  every  man's  hand  is  against  his  fellow,  and  his 
fellow's  hand  is  against  him.  Economics  teaches,  umnistakably,  that 
labor  and  capital  are  not  enemies,  but  partners.  An  understanding 
of  economics  will  lead  the  employer  to  ask,  not  "how  little,"  but 
"  how  much  can  I  pay  my  employees,"  and  similarly  it  will  lead  the 
employees  to  ask,  not  "  how  little,"  but  "  how  much  can  we  do  for 
our  employer."  One-half  of  the  ills  of  our  social  system  would  be 
cured  if  men  could  be  led  to  view  their  fancied  differences  from  the 
point  of  view  of  those  whom  they  are  opposing. 

The  exclusive  use  of  a  textbook  may  lead  to  the  notion  that  eco- 
nomics is  a  matter  of  the  book  and  not  of  the  world  which  is  all 
about  the  students.  The  topical  method  alone  is  in  danger  of  being 
vague  and  indefinite.  To  escape  from  these  dangers,  the  textbook 
may  be  used  to  give  unity  and  continuity  to  the  study,  while  supple- 
mentary material  may  be  organized  on  the  basis  of  wisely-selected 
topics. 

The  first  approach  to  economics  should  be  inductive,  concrete, 
descriptive,  based  on  the  observation  of  the  student,  and  an  accumu- 
lation of  familiar  industrial  and  commercial  facts.  The  most  natural 
approach  is  through  a  study  of  the  place  and  meaning  of  indus- 
trial and  commercial  employments  in  modern  social  life  under  the 
head  of  industrial  and  commercial  geographj^  This  phase  of  eco- 
nomic study  is  recommended  for  the  tenth  year.  In  the  twelfth  year, 
there  should  come  a  study  of  economic  laws  and  principles.  These 
laws  and  principles  should  be  applied  to  the  problems  of  transpor- 
tation, insurance,  money,  banking,  and  government  regulation  of 
business. 

V.  COMMERCIAL  STUDIES. 

1.  FIRST  LESSONS  IN  BUSINESS:   EIGHTH  YEAR. 

Formal  bookkeeping  should  not  be  attempted  in  the  eighth  year. 
The  pupil  is  too  immature  to  grasp  its  intricacies,  and  even  if  he 
could  comprehend  them  and  become  fairly  proficient  in  account- 


40  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

keeping,  he  could  secure  no  desirable  employment  in  this  field  owing 
to  his  youth.  Failing  to  gain  recognition  as  a  bookkeeper  he  will 
be  unwilling  to  accept  mere  clerical  work  such  as  one  so  youthful 
can  hope  to  get.  Furthermore,  if  he  should  finish  even  an  ele- 
mentary course  in  bookkeej^ing  he  is  likely  to  be  satisfied  with  less 
training  than  is  best  for  him.  Therefore  this  year's  course  should 
ground  the  pupil  in  the  fundamentals  of  business  practice,  develop 
business  habits,  and  interest  him  in  bookkeeping  to  whicli  this  ele- 
mentary work  directly  leads. 

l\Tiile  one  of  the  purposes  is  to  interest  pupils  in  vocational  busi- 
ness training,  the  first  lessons  in  business  here  recommended  should 
also  be  planned  so  as  to  fit  for  immediate  employment  those  who 
can  not,  or  will  not,  go  on  into  the  ninth  year. 

OUTLINE. 

1.  Definite  instruction  and  practice  should  be  given  in  tlie  fundamental  busi- 
ness habits,  such  as  courtesy,  honesty,  neatness,  accuracy,  promptness,  punc- 
tuality, cheerfulness,  loyalty,  industry,  attentiveness,  persistency,  and  any  other 
qualities  essential  to  business  success.  Formal  instruction  should  be  given  at 
the  beginning  of  the  course,  but  practice  of  a  very  definite  character  should 
be  carried  on  throughout  the  year  to  insure  that  these  business  habits  shall 
become  fixed. 

2.  Initiative  as  a  business  asset  must  be  developed,  so  far  as  possible,  in 
young  pupils.    This  can  best  be  done  by  concrete  instruction. 

3.  Record  work,  that  will  develop  the  requisite  skill  in  handling  specially 
ruled  space,  ruling  lines,  entering  figures  in  properly  ruled  columns,  etc.,  is  of 
vital  importance.  For  this  part  of  the  work  the  following  types  of  exercises 
may  be  used :  Personal  expense  account  of  the  pupil  and  of  a  student  at  college ; 
household  records;  simple  records  of  youthful-  business  ventures;  records  of 
school  supplies;  thrift  records,  etc. 

4.  Business  forms  should  receive  attention.  The  following  should  be  included : 
Invoices,  receipts,  checks,  notes,  and  simple  orders. 

5.  The  various  simpler  systems  of  filing  should  be  taught,  and  opportunity 
for  practice  in  filing  should  be  afforded  the  pupil.  The  alphabetical,  geographi- 
cal, and  numerical  systems  may  be  included.  By  securing  one  hundred  or  more 
letters  for  use  in  class,  actual  filing  experience  can  be  given.  By  arranging 
these  letters  alphabetically  and  numbering  them  from  one  to  one  hundred  in 
the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  each  letter,  the  filing  may  be  checked  easily  by 
noting  if  any  numbers  are  out  of  place  when  they  are  filed. 

6.  The  ability  to  receive,  understand,  and  execute  oral  orders  or  instructions 
is  worth  developing.    Practice  alone  will  accomplish  this. 

7.  Pressure  work  in  the  form  of  exercises  to  be  done  in  a  given  time,  or 
turned  in  incomplete,  will  inculcate  the  habit  of  working  rapidly.  Speed  work 
need  not  be  confined  to  business  arithmetic. 

8.  Instruction  should  be  given  in  the  valuable  art  of  wrapping  goods  for  de- 
livery or  shipping. 

9.  The  various  duties  connected  with  messenger  service  should  be  explained ; 
the  opportunities  that  efficient  messenger  service  will  open  up  should  be 
pointed  out ;  and  practice  in  messenger  work  should  be  afforded. 

10.  The  work  of  the  stock  clerks  should  be  explained.  Checking  invoices, 
marking  goods,  making  reports  on  the  supply,  etc.,  may  be  included  in  the 
IDractice  part  of  this  course. 


COURSES  IIT  THE   COMMERCIAL.  CURRICULUM.  41 

11.  Making  change,  preparing  money  for  deposit,  etc.,  slioukl  also  have  a 
place  in  an  elementary  course  in  business  training. 

12.  During  the  last  six  weeks  of  the  year  fundamental  principles  of  debit 
and  credit  may  be  given  to  stimulate  an  interest  in  the  bookkeeping  course  of 
the  ninth  year.  Simple  accounts  and  journal  entries  may  be  required  at  this 
stage  of  the  year's  work. 

13.  In  connection  with  the  course  in  first  lessons  in  business,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  short  drills  in  penmanship  be  given  daily.  These  exercises  should 
consist  of  movement  drills  and  the  writing  of  complete  sentences  and  para- 
graphs. The  business  forms  and  record-keeping  work  in  this  course  afford  an 
excellent  opportunity  for  practice  in  business  penmanship,  and  by  coordinating 
the  business  writing  with  the  work  outlined  above  it  should  be  possible  to  de- 
velop a  good  business  handwriting-  at  the  end  of  this  year.  Special  work  in 
penmanship  without  credit  in  the  ninth  year  is  recommended  for  those  who  at 
the  end  of  the  eighth  year  need  further  practice. 

2.  ELEMENTARY  BOOKKEEPING:  NINTH  YEAR. 

It  seems  best  to  offer  an  elementary  course  in  bookkeeping  and 
business  practice  in  the  ninth  year  so  that  the  pupil  will  feel  that 
he  is  really  beginning  a  business  curriculum.  To  deny  him  a  chance 
to  start  this  important  business  subject  is  likely  to  drive  the  pupil 
into  the  private  business  school  without  sufficient  academic  education 
to  insure  future  growth  and  advancement.  However,  his  inmiaturity 
will  necessarily  limit  the  bookkeeping  of  this  year  to  fundamentals. 

The  requirements  of  business  are  changing  rapidly  in  this  field. 
Fifteen  years  ago  bookkeepers  were  in  great  demand.  By  the  term 
"  bookkeeper  "  was  meant  one  who  could  take  charge  of  a  set  of  books, 
simple  or  complicated,  as  the  case  might  be.  Today  not  more  than 
1  out  of  50  calls  for  office  help  is  for  such  a  bookkeeper,  and  even 
then  a  very  different  type  of  person  is  needed ;  "bookkeeper"  usually 
means  at  present  a  ledger  or  entry  clerk.  Business  has  grown  to 
gigantic  proportions  and  accounting  systems  are  so  sectionalized  as 
to  make  it  necessary  for  each  one  of  the  many  "bookkeepers"  to 
perform  but  a  part  of  the  whole  task.  His  work  has  become  in- 
creasingly a  matter  of  routine,  and  offers  a  diminishingly  attractive 
field  for  the  young  man  who  aspires  to  large  business  success.  Book- 
keeping machines  have  been  introduced  and  in  not  a  few  positions 
the  bookkeeping  has  become  a  machine  operation. 

The  purposes  that  lie  back  of  the  teaching  of  bookkeeping  today 
include  the  old  one  of  training  bookkeepers  and  accountants,  but 
they  surely  do  not  end  there.  Many  young  people  have  the  special 
aptitude  required  for  accountancy  but  will  never  do  any  bookkeeping. 
The  young  man  who  enters  business  as  a  bookkeeper  is  more  likely 
to  find  himself  in  a  "blind  alley"  than  most  educators  realize.  In 
a  survey  of  the  needs  in  commercial  education  made  in  one  of  the 
larger  cities  a  majority  of  the  large  concerns  canvassed  stated  that 
"  bookkeepers  do  not  even  need  to  know  double-entry  bookkeeping," 


42  BUSINESS  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

as  modern  record  systems  are  so  highly  sectionalized.  This  brings 
the  trained  "bookkeeper"  into  competition  with  the  untrained  work- 
man and  the  sahiries  paid  for  such  work  show  the  result  of  this 
competition. 

These  facts  are  stated  merely  for  the  purpose  of  emphasizing  the 
fact  that  while  bookkeeping  is  still  the  backbone  of  the  commercial 
curriculum,  it  holds  its  place  by  virtue  of  the  fact  that  it  affords  the 
best  possible  opportunity  for  giving  the  pupil  an  all-round  knowl- 
edge of  business.  It  furnishes  the  very  best  means  of  teaching  busi- 
ness— why  and  how  it  is  carried  on,  and  its  classification  into  retail, 
wholesale,  manufacturing,  etc.  Incidentally  it  enables  the  teacher 
to  develop  in  the  student  business  habits  such  as  punctuality,  neat- 
ness, accuracy,  courtesy,  etc.  It  affords  also  a  valuable  means  of 
emphasizing  the  all-important  trait  of  character  known  as  initiative. 
Through  bookkeeping  the  student  can  be  taught  the  absolute  neces- 
sity of  attention  to  minor  but  vital  details;  he  can  be  made  to  feel 
what  it  means  to  assume  responsibility,  to  execute  orders,  and  to  work 
consistently  and  patiently  for  a  final  result.  The  habit  of  sustained 
effort  on  one  task  is  no  mean  asset  to  any  worker,  and  to  the  young 
business  employee  it  is  of  vital  importance.  The  bookkeeping  les- 
sons are  more  closely  connected  than  are  those  in  any  other  subject 
in  the  whole  curriculum,  and  this  continued  and  connected  work  * 
means  much  in  the  student's  development,  giisiness  customs  and  y 
terminology  can  be  taught  best  through  the  medium  of  this  subjecjy 
fThe  penmanship  and  arithmetic  instruction  is  vitalized  in  book- 
,  keeping,  and  the  best  results  in  these  subjects  can  be  secured  only 
w^hen  they  are  taught  in  connection  with  bookkeeping,  or  at  least 
parallel  with^^^y  -^^^  o^ty  should  there  be  a  close  correlation  be- 
tween bookkeeping  and  the  two  subjects  just  named,  but  the  corre- 
lation should  be  established  also  between  bookkeeping  and  such 
subjects  as  commercial  law,  commercial  correspondence,  business 
English,  business  organization,  and  business  management. 

How  these  various  objects  ma}^  be  obtained  through  the  study  of 
bookkeeping  will  be  apparent  to  any  live  teacher  of  the  subject.  De- 
velop strong  character,  good  business  habits,  initiative,  and  thinking 
power  through  instruction  in  this  subject  and  the  purely  incidental 
aim  of  making  bookkeepers  will  take  care  of  itself.  In  other  words, 
teach  bookkeeping  as  thoroughly  as  ever  but  consider  it  a  means, 
not  an  end.  Ability  to  keep  books  is  a  by-product  of  instruction  in 
bookkeeping  and  as  such  it  is  important,  but  the  real  purpose  behind 
bookkeeping  instruction  is  the  teaching  of  business  and  the  develop- 
ment of  business  habits. 

Since  it  is  neither  possible  nor  desirable  to  develop  expert  book-    . 
keepers  in  the  ninth  year,  it  is  practicable  to  reduce  elementary  book- 
keeping to  the  level  of  a  ninth-year  student  and  thereby  start  him 


COURSES  IN   THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  43 

on  the  road  to  ultimate  expertness  in  the  science  of  accounts,  and  to 
fit  him  for  immediate  usefulness  in  the  clerical  field  in  case  economic 
j)ressure  forces  him  to  go  to  work  before  the  advanced  phases  of  the 
subject  are  reached. 

OUTLINE. 

1.  Journalizing. 

2.  Posting  and  taking  a  trial  balance. 

3.  Making  statements  of  profit  and  loss  and  of  assets  and  liabilities. 

4.  Closing  simple  profit  and  loss  accounts  into  the  proprietor's  or  investment 
account  by  journal  entries. 

5.  Filing  business  papers. 

6.  Fundamental  ruling  work  in  connection  with  ledger  accounts,  statements, 
etc. 

7.  Making  out  monthly  statements  of  personal  accounts. 

8.  Handling  the  various  business  forms  in  their  relation  to  business  trans- 
actions. 

9.  Cash,  trade,  and  bank  discounts  and  interest  transactions. 

10.  Draft  work  during  the  last  month  of  the  year,  but  it  should  be  of  a  simple 
character. 

11.  Use  of  the  following  books :  Journal,  sales  book,  invoice  book  or  purchase 
book,  cashbook,  check  book,  and  ledger. 

The  long  set  with  infrequent  posting  and  closing  should  give  way 
to  short  exercises  that  furnish  better  drill  material  and  lend  them- 
selves to  better  class  teaching.  A  connected  series  of  transactions 
may  well  be  used  to  test  the  pupil  on  the  principles  taught.  Class 
instruction  should  be  followed  by  individual  instruction  each  day. 

The  pupil  who  has  finished  this  year's  work  should  be  able  to  keep 
a  simple  set  of  books,  or  to  assist  with  a  more  elaborate  one.  He 
should  also  be  well  qualified  to  give  satisfaction  in  many  clerical 
positions  for  which  boys  are  in  great  demand.  Best  of  all,  however, 
he  should  be  stimulated  to  go  on  into  the  tenth  year  where  inter- 
mediate bookkeeping  can  be  given  in  preparation  for  advanced  work 
in  the  accounting  field. 

In  the  working  out  of  the  so-called  business  practice  "  sets,"  which 
should  be  merely  the  application  of  bookkeeping  principles  previ- 
ously taught,  excellent  results  can  be  obtained  without  the  aid  of  a 
text.  Recording  the  transaction  from  the  actual  invoice,  check,  note, 
draft,  or  order,  with  no  printed  directions,  is  far  more  business-like 
than  following  blindly  definite  printed  rules  of  procedure.  This 
method  gives  a  business-like  background,  and  forces  the  pupil  to  do 
his  own  thinking. 

3.  INTERMEDIATE  BOOKKEEPING:  TENTH  TEAR. 

This  course  should  continue  the  practice  and  drill  of  the  preced- 
ing year,  using  more  complex  forms,  columnar  books  of  original 
entry,  and  auxiliary  ledgers.  Trading  and  profit-and-loss  state- 
ments and  balance  sheets  in  more  elaborate  form  should  be  studied. 


44  BUSINESS  EDUCATION  IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

The  adaptation  of  the  simpler  forms  of  bookkeeping  to  the  more 
exacting  demands  of  larger  and  more  highly  specialized  business  may 
also  be  a  distinctive  feature. 

Partnership  and  corporate  forms  of  business  organization  should 
be  illustrated.  Retail,  wholesale,  jobbing,  and  manufacturing  busi- 
nesses should  receive  attention  in  so  far  as  they  require  differentiation. 
The  kind  of  business  used  is  of  less  importance  than  the  character 
of  the  set  of  books  illustrated.  Special  entries,  adjustment  entries, 
and  correction  entries  belong  in  the  work  of  this  year. 

The  more  difficult  bookkeeping  involved  in  the  distribution  of 
profits  in  business  ventures  under  partnership  and  corporate  control 
should  receive  attention  in  this  year.  Problems,  short  exercises,  and 
other  drill  material  that  lend  themselves  to  class  instruction,  as  well 
as  connected  series  of  transactions,  are  of  vital  importance.  As  in 
elementary  bookkeeping  both  class  and  individual  instruction  should 
be  g^ven  daily.  The  pupil  who  finishes  this  year's  work  should  have 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  bookkeeping  practice  and  should, be  able 
to  assume  responsibility  in  connection  with  fairly  difficult  bookkeep- 
ing duties. 

4.  OFFICE  PRACTICE:   ELEVENTH  YEAR, 

Following  intermediate  bookkeeping  there  should  be  a  course  in 
office  practice  and  office  appliances.  All  pupils  who  expect  to  enter 
business  through  the  office,  as  bookkeeper,  general  clerical  worker,  or 
stenographer,  should  take  this  course.  Those  who  have  elected  short- 
hand and  typewriting  should  take  only  that  part  which  belongs  with 
stenographic  or  expert  tyi)ewriting  skill  as  a  preparation  for  the 
work  of  a  stenographer. 

Wherever  possible,  instruction  in  the  classroom  should  be  followed 
by  practice  in  the  office.  In  a  large  high  school  such  practice  may 
be  secured  within  the  school.  One  free  period  each  day  may  well 
be  devoted  to  this  work.  Extra  credit  should  be  given  for  all  such 
work  satisfactorily  completed.  In  one  high  school,  for  example,  the 
following  persons  in  the  school  utilized  the  stenographic  and  clerical 
services  of  the  practice  students:  The  principal  has  a  student  each 
period  during  the  school  day  to  assist  the  regular  secretary;  the 
heads  of  the  following  departments  set  apart  one  period  each  day  for 
their  office  work  and  students  are  assigned  to  them  for  the  semester — 
English,  classical,  modern  language,  geography,  physics,  chemistry, 
and  commercial;  the  commercial  department  office  has  a  relay  of 
students  who  handle  all  kinds  of  work  brought  in  by  any  of  the 
teachers  in  the  school ;  the  "  adviser  for  girls  "  has  a  student  office 
force,  as  does  the  man  who  performs  similar  work  for  boys ;  the  school 
registrar  has  student  clerical  help ;  the  school  bank  and  the  book  ex- 
change are  handled  by  office  practice  students ;  the  physical  training 


COURSES  IN  THE   COMMEKCIAL   CUKRICULXJM.  45 

departments,  for  both  boys  and  girls,  use  student  clerical  help.  About 
50  students  each  semester  thus  obtain  valuable  experience  in  office 
work.  All  school  employers  are  required  to  report  to  the  commercial 
department  on  the  quality  and  character  of  the  work  done  so  that 
appropriate  credit,  not  exceeding  one  unit,  can  be  given. 

Since  bookkeeping  has  become  so  highly  sectionalized,  the  pupil 
should  not  only  get  an  idea  of  a  business  as  a  whole  by  making 
records  in  all  the  books,  but  should,  by  a  series  of  drills,  serve  in 
turn  as  cashier,  invoice  clerk,  billing  clerk,  petty  cashier,  etc.  Hav- 
ing gained  a  knowledge  of  a  bookkeeping  system  as  a  whole,  he  will 
be  able  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  principle  of  division  of 
labor  in  bookkeeping  work. 

In  addition  to  the  office  practice  work  in  the  school  much  outside 
part-time  work  can  be  found.  The  "  week  in  and  week  out "  arrange- 
ment provides  contact  with  business.  Regular  employment  for  office- 
practice  students  may  often  be  obtained  after  school,  on  occasional 
evenings,  and  on  Saturdays.  Maiiy  clergymen  would  be  glad  to  get 
an  office  helper  for  a  few  hours  each  week.  E.ven  some  of  the  larger 
business  firros  are  glad  to  cooperate  in  this  matter.  They  can  be 
shown  that  by  so  doing  they  will  be  developing  excellent  material  for 
future  full-time  positions.  The  chamber  of  commerce  or  board  of 
trade  is  always  willing  to  take  available  part-time  workers.  In  the 
city  referred  to  above  the  board  of  education  uses  a  number  of  high- 
school  commercial  students  on  a  part-time  basis. 

Credit  should  also  be  allowed  for  summer  work  when  properly 
reported  upon  by  the  employer.  If  some  slight  remuneration  is  given 
for  this  outside  part-time  work  school  authorities  will  not  be  criti- 
cized for  what  might  be  misinterpreted  as  an  exploitation  of  student 
labor.  Assignments  during  school  time  should  not  be  paid  for  except 
by  school  credit. 

The  .kind  of  practice  work  that  can  be  obtained  through  the  part- 
time  program  herein  suggested  w^ill  be  sufficiently  diversified  to  in- 
sure its  educational  value.  The  school  work  will  take  on  new  mean- 
ing for  those  who  are  assuming  the  responsibilities  of  actual  office 
positions,  and  students  so  employed  will  make  many  valuable  con- 
tributions to  the  schoolroom  assignments. 

OUTLINE. 

1.  Business  ethics  and  deportment. 

2.  Meeting  callers. 

3.  Handling  telephone  calls — in  and  out. 

4.  Office  routine:  (a)  handling  mail — incoming  and  outgoing;  (&)  lettering — 
signs,  packages,  etc.;  (c)  billing — various  methods;  (d)  filing  and  indexing. 

5.  Office  reference  books:  (a)  dictionary;  (h)  telephone  directory;  (c)  city 
directory;  (d)  official  railway  guide;  (e)  commercial  rating  books;  (f)  postal 
information  guide;   (g)  trade  catalogs. 


46  BUSINESS  EDUCATION  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

6.  Office  appliances :  (m)  mimeograph;  (h)  adding  and  calculating  machines ; 
(c)  dictating  machine  and  dictaphone;  {d)  slide  rule;  (e)  letterpress;  (/") 
check  protector  and  check  writer ;  (g)  automatic  numbering  machine ;  (7i)  mul- 
ti graph  and  other  duplicating  machines. 

7.  Proof  reading  and  printers'  corrections. 

8.  Shipping  goods — parcel  post,  express,  and  freight. 

9.  Legal  backing  sheets. 

10.  Rough  draft. 

11.  Economical  use  of  office  supplies. 

EQUIPMENT. 

It  is  not  necessar}^  to  purchase  all  the  machines  and  devices  sug- 
'  gested  in  this  outline.    Many  of  them  can  be  obtained  on  loan  from 
the  local  offices  of  the  manufacturers,  and  others  can  be  explained  to 
the  class  from  pictures,  catalogs,  slides,  etc.     A  rather  complete 
filing  and  card-indexing  outfit  should  be  a  part  of  the  equipment 
of  every  commercial  department.    Students'  work  in  various  classes 
can  also  be  filed  by  the  office-practice  students  for  the  training  they 
I  will  get.     The  office  reference  books  are  all  easily  obtained.     The 
local  office  of  any  mercantile  agency  will  be  glad  to  furnish  a  com- 
mercial rating  book  of  a  previous  year  which  will  be  quite  as  valu- 
I  able  as  the  current  issue.     Directories  and  guides  can  be  obtained 
gi'atis. 

MODEL  OFFICE. 

Where  the  kind  of  practice  work  referred  to  in  this  outline  can  be 
obtained,  the  model  office  may  not  be  necessary.  HoAvever,  if  part- 
time  work  in  or  out  of  the  school  can  not  be  obtained  the  model  office 
may  prove  valuable,  but  such  an  office,  if  provided,  should  be  used 
according  to  a  well  thought  out  plan.  Not  a  few  such  offices  appear 
to  be  for  show  only.  Equipment  for  such  an  office  costs  more  than 
can  be  justified  unless  it  is  to  be  used  daily  under  the  direction  of  a 
competent  instructor. 

CLASS  ORGANIZATION. 

In  the  shorthand,  typewriting,  and  bookkeeping  classes  office 
organization  rather  than  classroom  organization  should  prevail. 
The  relation  of  employer  and  employee  instead  of  teacher 
and  pupil  should  be  set  up  at  the  outset  in  these  classes. 
The  finest  kind  of  results  may  be  obtained  from  the  use  of  the 
following  plan:  An  initial  salary  of  $5  a  week  is  arranged  for,  and 
increases  are  given  as  they  are  earned.  Salaries  are  paid  bi- 
weekly by  check  on  the  school  bank.  At  the  end  of  each  semester 
an  amount  earned  in  excess  of  the  minimum  of  $100  will  entitle  pupil 
to  extra  credit.  A  head  stenographer,  clerk,  or  bookkeeper,  accord- 
ing to  the  subject,  is  a^Dpointed  as  soon  as  the  one  best  fitted  for  the 


COURSES  11^   THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  47 

position  is  ascertained.  Assistants  are  added  as  other  students 
develop  unusual  ability.  Checking  papers,  filing,  taking  attendance, 
making  out  reports,  answering  the  school  telephone,  carrying  mes- 
sages, helping  the  student  who  is  failing,  preparing  and  posting  test 
results,  are  some  of  the  duties  that  may  be  safely  intrusted  to  the 
chief  clerk  and  his  assistants.  The  performance  of  such  detail  work 
by  pupils  releases  the  energ}^  of  the  teacher  for  teaching;  furnishes 
office  practice  for  a  large  number  of  students;  stimulates  to  greater 
effort;  establishes  a  class  connection  between  school  and  business; 
and  makes  it  obligatory  on  the  teacher  to  master  the  fundamentals 
of  the  efficiency  type  of  business  organization.  Conduct,  punctuality, 
initiative,  attitude  toward  work,  attention  to  details,  and  general 
dependability  are  some  of  the  qualifications  that  may  be  considered  in 
fixing  the  credit  that  each  pupil  is  to  receive. 

5.  ADVANCEyO  BOOKKEEPING:  TWELFTH  YEAR. 

For  those  students  who  plan  to  enter  business  through  the  book- 
keeping channel,  and  those  who  expect  to  enter  the  accounting  field 
ultimately,  advanced  bookkeeping  should  be  offered  as  an  elective  in 
the  twelfth  year. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

1.  More  difficult  opening  entries  sliould  be  given. 

2.  Corporate  books,  including  those  that  are  peculiar  to  this  form  of  business 
organization,  may  be  treated  more  thoroughly  than  could  be  done  in  the  tenth 
year  before  the  pupil  had  studied  the  corporation  in  commercial  law  and 
economics. 

3.  Modern  cost  accounting  should  here  receive  the  attention  its  importance 
deserves. 

4.  More  dijBicult  balance  sheets  and  trading  and  profit  and  loss  statements 
may  be  presented.  Problems,  rather  than  "  sets,"  furnish  the  best  material  for 
this  work. 

5.  Card  record  systems  and  card  ledgers  should  receive  special  attention. 

6.  Loose-leaf  systems  may  be  studied  more  in  detail  in  this  advanced  course. 

7.  The  "  voucher  system  "  may  be  given  special  treatment. 

8.  Changing  from  single  to  double  entry  should  be  explained. 

9.  Accounting  problems  connected  with  the  distribution  of  profits  in  both 
partnership  and  corporate  forms  of  organization  should  be  given. 

10.  Depreciation,  reserve  accounts,  and  sinking  funds  are  important  topics 
for  a  twelfth  year  class. 

11.  Special  ledgers,  controlling  accounts,  analysis  of  accounts,  and  study  of 
their  relations  should  receive  attention. 

12.  Finally,  every  student  should  be  given  an  opportunity  to  study  several 
representative  sets  of  books  used  by  local  firms  and  be  required  to  report  to  the 
class  just  how  their  records  are  kept.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  visiting 
the  offices  of  the  firms  selected,  or  by  securing  fac-simile  pages  of  all  the  books 
used  in  each  set  to  be  studied,  and  preparing  them  for  convenient  use  in  the 
classroom.  This  analysis  will  go  far  toward  eliminating  what  might  be  termed 
"  stage  fright "  when  a  student  is  sent  to  take  a  bookkeeping  position.     One 


48  BUSII^ESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

who  has  had  this  work  will  find  it  easy  to  interpret  any  set  of  books  in  the  light 
of  h'm  knowledge  of  the  subject  of  bookkeeping  and  accounting. 

The  topics  and  systems  here  suggested  should  not  be  treated  as 
exhaustively  as  in  an  advanced  accounting  course.  The  instruction 
should  be  adapted  to  the  class  and  notliing  should  be  attempted 
which  is  beyond  their  ready  comprehension. 

Such  a  course  as  is  here  outlined  will  reveal  and  develoj)  latent 
ability  along  accounting  lines;  stimulate  an  interest  in  the  larger 
problems  of  business;  give  the  boy  or  girl  the  necessary  confidence 
to  attack  the  work  of  his  first  position ;  hold  more  students  in  high 
school  for  the  twelfth  year;  and  render  more  effective  the  earlier 
bookkeeping  instruction. 

6.  TYPEWRITING:  NINTH  YEAR, 

Ability  to  operate  a  typewriter  will  increase  the  value  of  any  office 
worker,  but  a  high  degree  of  skill  should  be  attempted  only  for  those 
who  expect  to  become  stenographers  or  typists.  Habits  of  accuracy, 
neatness,  attention  to  details,  rapidity  of  motion,  can  be  stimulated 
through  typewriting  practice.  No  other  commercial  subject  appeals 
so  strongly  to  the  younger  pupils  and  through  the  interest  thus 
created  the  pupil  may  be  held  in  school  longer  and  thereby  secure 
more  thorough  preparation  for  business. 

The  committee  has  placed  typewriting  in  the  ninth  year  for  all 
students  and  recommends  that  this  plan  be  followed  wherever  the 
necessary  equipment  can  be  obtained.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  this  subject  be  taught  by  competent  teachers  who  are  permitted 
to  devote  the  same  amount  of  time  to  instruction  as  is  expected  of 
teachers  of  other  subjects.  Constant  supervision  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  is  necessary  to  obtain  good  results.  No  longer  is  it  consid- 
ered possible  for  pupils  to  acquire  typewriting  skill  from  unintelli- 
gent, unguided,  and  misdirected  practice.  Tangible  results  are  ex- 
pected of  the  typewriting  teacher,  and  a  high  type  of  pedagogical 
skill  is  necessary  to  secure  the  results  that  will  stand  the  test  of  the 
best  business  office. 

OUTLINE. 

1.  Careful  and  thorough  explanation  of  the  nature  of  the  subject. 

2.  Discussion  of  the  importance  of  accuracy  at  the  outset. 

3.  Presentation  of  proper  technique  including:  (a)  Position  of  the  machine; 
{J})  position  of  the  arms  in  their  relation  to  the  machine;  (c)  position  of  the 
wrists  and  hands;  {d)  method  of  delivering  the  strokes;  (e)  use  of  finger 
movement;  (/)  use  of  space  lever  and  proper  method  of  returning  carriage;  ig) 
inserting  and  removing  paper;  (h)  operation  of  space  bar  and  shift  key. 

4.  Teaching  the  parts  of  the  machine  and  their  uses. 

5.  Development  of  the  keyboard  according  to  any  approved  method. 

6.  Use  of  all  the  labor-saving  devices. 


COURSES   IN   THE    COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  49 

7.  Instruction  in  letter  forms. 

8.  Practice  in  making  commonly  used  characters  which  are  not  on  the  key- 
board such  as  plus,  equal  ity,  and  division  signs,  ditto  marks,  etc. 

9.  Instruction  and  practice  in  the  care  of  the  machine. 

10.  Changing  the  ribbon. 

11.  Vertical  and  horizontal  rulings. 

12.  Addressing  envelopes. 

13.  Centering  titles. 

14  Use  of  column  selector  in  paragraphing  and  making  lists  of  one  or  two 
columns. 

15.  Using  carbon  paper. 

16.  Writing  on  ruled  paper. 

17.  Sufficient  practice  in  typewriting  to  enable  the  pupil  to  write  at  the  rate 
of  25  words  a  minute. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

In  the  speed  test,  close  supervision  is  of  the  greatest  importance — 
standardized  matter  should  be  used,  the  letter  or  stroke  being  taken 
as  the  unit  of  measure.  For  the  25-word  rate  a  ten-minute  test  is 
recommended. 

"Acceleration  exercises"  are  used  by  many  successful  teachers. 
These  exercises  should  consist  of  memorized  w^ords,  phrases,  and 
short  sentences.  "Concentration  exercises,"  consisting  of  one  re- 
peated word,  are  also  valuable.  Correct  fingering  is  all  important  in 
the  early  work.  Absolute  accuracy  should  not  be  insisted  upon  at 
first. 

Keyboard  shields  are  recommended  by  some  excellent  teachers. 
Others  condemn  them.  Much  depends  on  the  teacher  and  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  class.  If  shields  make  it  easier  to  get  the  pupils  to 
w^rite  by  touch  they  should  be  used  until  correct  habits  are  formed. 

The  importance  of  rhythm  in  typewriting  can  hardly  be  over- 
stated. Music  may  help.  It  has  been  used  successfully  by  many 
teachers  and  is  w^orth  a  trial  in  any  class  of  beginners.  Appropriate 
class  drill  should  be  given  every  day.  Dependence  on  "  individual 
instruction  "  too  frequently  degenerates  into  "  individual  neglect." 
Another  means  of  keeping  the  class  together  and  at  the  same  time 
permitting  those  who  work  faster  and  more  accurately  to  get  addi- 
tional benefit  is  to  require  one  perfect  copy  of  each  lesson  and  two 
copies  that  may  contain  a  small  number  of  errors,  marking  all  pupils 
w  ho  accomplish  this  minimum  75  per  cent  to  80  per  cent.  Those  who 
turn  in  two  perfect  copies  and  one  with  errors  may  be  marked  81 
per  cent  to  89  i)er  cent.  Those  w^io  turn  in  three  perfect  copies  may 
be  marked  90  per  cent  to  100  per  cent.  By  this  method  much  of  the 
strain  is  removed  and  the  pupil  wdll  get  at  least  one  acceptable  paper 
completed  each  day  and  w  ill  be  encouraged  by  the  thought  that  he  is 
making  progress.     By  requiring  the  completion  of  the  three  copies 


50  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

he  will  write  the  exercise  through  to  the  end  at  least  three  times, 
whilfe  he  might  write  it  through  but  once  if  only  one  perfect  copy  is 
required.  This  insures  practice  on  the  latter  part  of  the  lesson  as 
well  as  on  the  first  part. 

TENTH  TEAR. 

The  speed  requirement  of  the  tenth  year  should  be  40  words  a 
minute.  A  ten-minute  speed  test  should  be  given  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  The  lessons  covered  this  year  should  include  the  following : 
1.  Legal  forms:  (a)  Articles  of  agreement,  (5)  power  of  attorney, 
(c)  bill  of  sale,  (d)  will,  (e)  complaint  and  answer;  2.  Schedule; 
3.  Billing;  4.  Telegrams;  5.  Tabulation;  6.  Use  of  backing  sheets; 
7.  Cutting  stencils;  8.  Use  of  two  or  three  color  ribbon;  9.  Card 
work;  10.  Additional  practice  in  writing  letters. 

ELEVENTH  YEAR. 

The  only  typewriting  that  will  be  required  this  year  will  be  done 
in  connection  with  the  office  practice  course  and  in  the  transcription 
of  the  shorthand  notes  written  from  dictation.  Through  the  office 
practice  an  opportunity  will  be  afforded  all  pupils  to  apply  in  the 
business  office  their  knowledge  of  and  skill  in  typewriting.  Only 
those  who  elect  to  become  stenograiohers  or  typists  should  use  the 
machine  regularly  this  year. 

TW^ELFTH  YEAR. 

Those  who  elect  the  secretarial  course  of  this  year  should  make  use 
of  their  typewriting  and  increase  their  skill. 

7.  SHORTHAND. 

Shorthand  may  be  learned  by  any  pupil  of  average  ability;  but 
more  than  ability  to  take  dictation  is  required  to  make  a  good 
stenographer.  Maturity,  judgment,  tact,  good  vocabulary,  command 
of  good  English,  ability  to  spell,  punctuate,  divide  words  properly, 
and  to  paragraph  are  some  of  the  many  requisites.  Too  many  so- 
called  stenographers  are  failures  because  of  deficiency  in  one  or  more 
of  these  requisites.  Smaller  offices  often  require  workers  who  can 
combine  a  little  stenography  witli  other  duties,  but  such  office  assist- 
ants are  not  properly  called  stenographers.  Enough  of  this  class  will 
always  be  available  while  the  demand  for  first-class  stenographers 
will  never  be  fully  met. 

This  coimnittee  believes,  therefore,  that  shorthand  in  the  commer- 
cial curriculum  should  be  elective,  beginning  in  the  tenth  year,  and 
that  only  those  who  in  the  judgment  of  competent  authorities  are 
likely  to  succeed  in  stenographic  work  should  be  permitted  to  elect 


COURSES   IN   THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  51 

it  as  a  major  subject.  There  are  so  many  good  office  and  store  posi- 
tions open  to  boys  and  girls  without  shorthand  training  that  to  deny 
any  group  the  privilege  of  taking  this  subject  is  no  hardship.  Voca- 
tional guidance  of  the  right  sort  makes  this  procedure  imperative. 

It  seems  best  to  offer  shorthand  as  an  elective  in  the  tenth  year,  so 
that  those  who  are  qualified  for  this  subject  and  interested  in  it  may 
not  be  easily  induced  to  leave  the  public  high  school  for  the  more 
direct  private  school  course.  This  plan  also  makes  it  possible  to 
devote  a  third  year  to  the  subject  wherever  a  secretarial  course  can 
be  offered  in  the  twelfth  year. 

TENTH  YEAR. 

For  the  tenth  year  the  following  suggestions  are  given : 

1.  Give  a  brief  historical  survey  of  the  subject. 

2.  Explain  the  difference  between  the  various  light-line  and  Pitmanic  sys- 
tems to  arouse  enthusiasm  for  and  confidence  in  the  system  being  studied. 

3.  Instruct  the  class  as  to  the  approved  tools  for  use  in  shorthand  work. 

4.  Develop  the  correct  method  of  writing,  or  technique. 

5.  Cover  the  principles  of  the  system. 

6.  Give  sufficient  practice  in  taking  dictation  to  enable  the  pupil  to  write 
from  dictation  at  the  rate  of  50  words  a  minute  for  10  minutes  and  accurately 
to  transcribe  his  notes. 

7.  Combine  dictation  with  the  study  of  the  principles  just  as  early  as  the 
system  in  use  will  permit.  • 

8.  Those  who  do  not  do  exceptionally  well  on  the  first  term's  work  should  re- 
peat it  or  drop  the  subject  to  avoid  failure  at  the  end  of  the  second  term,  when 
repetition  of  this  term's  work  will  not  remedy  the  weakness  in  principles  cov- 
ered the  first  term.  So  vital  is  this  point  that  in  many  schools  a  mark  above 
the  passing  mark  is  required  as  a  condition  of  continuing  the  work  beyond  the 
first  term, 

9.  Get  and  use  all  the  supplementary  material  available  in  the  system 
adopted. 

10.  A  shorthand  magazine  will  prove  helpful  in  many  ways. 

ELEVENTH  YEAR. 

In  this  year  the  principles  should  be  reviewed  as  required;  speed 
should  be  developed  to  100  words  a  minute  on  solid  matter  of  average 
difficulty;  ability  to  transcribe  notes  at  a  good  rate  of  speed  with 
absolute  accuracy  should  be  secured ;  the  proper  use  of  note  book  and 
other  details  connected  with  the  routine  of  the  stenographer's  work 
should  receive  attention.  If  inaccuracies  in  the  use  of  English  de- 
velop in  transcript  work,  the  shorthand  teacher  should  try  to 
strengthen  the  pupil  in  his  use  of  English  by  concrete  instruction 
and  drill.  Use  of  the  apostrophe,  punctuation,  paragraphing,  spell- 
ing, plural  forms,  caiDitalization,  and  syllabification  will  cause  most 
trouble,  and  the  shorthand  teacher  will  find  it  economy  of  time  to 
drill  on  these  phases  of  English.     This  can  not  be  left  entirely  to  the 


52  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

English  department.  In  the  long  run,  time  Avill  be  saved  by  atten- 
tion to  this  drill  work. 

The  dictation  should  consist  of  new  and  practical  matter,  but  each 
day  a  portion  of  the  time  should  be  given  to  repetition  of  old  matter 
for  practice.  A  wide  range  of  material  must  be  selected.  It  is  be- 
lieved by  the  committee  that  a  speed  of  100  words  a  minute  on  new 
letters  and  solid  matter  is  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
average  business  office  at  the  outset,  and  that  as  the  dictation  of  the 
office  becomes  familiar  this  speed  will  be  materially  increased.  To 
strive  for  greater  speed  at  the  end  of  this  year  would  surely  tend  to 
lessen  the  amount  of  time  that  could  be  devoted  to  corrective  English, 
perfecting  the  notes,  etc. 

Carefully  edited  letters  should  be  used  for  dictation  so  that  the 
stereotyped  form  of  letter,  which  is  being  condemned  in  the  business 
English  class,  will  not  be  continually  dictated  in  the  shorthand 
department.  The  worn  out  and  meaningless  phrases  whicli  are  so 
often  used  by  business  men,  can  be  given  in  separate  drill  exercises 
if  it  seems  best  to  give  them  at  all. 

TWELFTH  YEAR. 

In  this  year  a  secretarial  course  may  be  offered  for  those  who  have 
special  aptitude  for  shorthand  work,  and  who  desire  to  fit  themselves 
for  the  highest  type  of  service  in  this  field.  Much  more  is  demanded 
of  a  private  secretary  than  of  a  stenographer.  For  this  reason  only 
those  who  possess  a  special  fitness  for  this  type  of  work  should  be 
permitted  to  take  it.  Furthermore,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  full- 
fledged  secretaries  will  be  developed  in  the  high  school.  The  best  that 
can  be  done  is  to  train  exceptional  stenographers  who,  through  their 
stenographic  experience,  may  arrive  at  a  secretarial  status. 

OUTUNE. 

1.  Dictation  for  a  higher  speed — at  least  125  words  a  minute  on  unfamiliar 
matter. 

2.  Additional  transcription  work  to  increase  the  daily  output. 

3.  Special  civil  service  preparation  for  the  highest  type  of  stenographic  work 
in  the  civil  service  field,  city,  State  and  Federal. 

4.  Special  vocabulary  work  in  connection  with  the  mastery  of  the  reporting 
style  of  shorthand. 

5.  Instruction  in  office  organization,  equipment,  and  efficiency  methods. 

6.  Business  ethics  and  tactful  handling  of  situations  that  arise  in  the  busi- 
ness office  need  serious  attention. 

7.  Development  of  initiative  and  the  habit  of  thinking  for  others. 

8.  Ability  to  direct  a  stenographic  force  and  to  secure  the  maximum  efficiency 
from  each  worker. 

9.  Practice  in  dictating,  as  the  secretary  is  frequently  called  upon  to  dictate 
letters,  memoranda,  etc. 


COURSES   IN   THE    COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  53 

8.  BUSINESS  ORGANIZATION:  TWELFTH  YEAR  OF  GENERAL  BUSINESS  AND  BOOK- 

KEEPING  CURRICULUM. 

Business  organizations  should  be  studied  at  first-hand.  Such  study 
is  superior  to  textbook  study.  Definiteness  of  organization  and 
graphic  representations  of  schemes  are  features  of  modern  business. 

OUTLINE. 

I.  Wholesale  houses  (general  merchandise)  : 

1.  Office. 

2.  Sales    department. 

3.  Merchandise   department. 

4.  Credit. 

5.  Territory. 

6.  Factory. 
XL  Retail  houses: 

1.  Merchandise  department. 

2.  Selling  and  service  department. 

3.  Accounting  and  credit  department. 

4.  Employment   department. 

5.  Advertising   department. 

6.  Educational  and  welfare  department.  >— -^ 

7.  Retail-store  systems. 

III.  Banking  and  brokerage  organizations. 

IV.  Managing  corporations :  Public   utility ;   electric  and  gas  service ;   street 
railroads,  etc. 

V.  Railroad  organization. 

VL  Specialty  store  organization:   Five  and  10  cent  stores;  trunk  and  bag 
shops;  optical  goods,  etc. 
VII.  Wholesale  staples :  Wool ;  cotton  ;  leather. 

9.  ADVERTISING:   TWELFTH  YEAR  OF   GENERAL  BUSINESS  AND   BOOKKEEPING 

CURRICULUM. 

OUTLINE. 

I.  The  place  of  advertising  in  business. 

II.  Purpose  of  advertising. 

III.  Analysis  of  goods. 

IV.  Analysis  of  market. 
V.  Advertising  methods: 

1.  General  periodicals, 

2.  Circulars,  catalogues,  sales  letters. 

3.  House  organs. 

4.  Novelties. 

5.  Educational  lectures,  demonstration,  moving  pictures. 

6.  Display  of  goods. 

7.  Outdoor  advertising. 

8.  Dealers'  aids. 

VI.  Printing  tools : 

1.  Type.  -'  ■      / 

2.  Stereotype.  .        i  .»    . 

3.  Halftone.  '' 

4.  Electrotype. 

5.  Two  and  three  color  process. 


54  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDABY  SCHOOLS. 

VI.  6.  Lithograph. 
*  7.  Etchings. 
8.  Wood  cuts. 
VII.  Planning  a  campaign. 

TUT.  Measuring  results.     (Each  student  should  study  and  report  on  the  ad- 
vertising of  a  particular  firm.) 

The  following  is  a  suggested  outline  for  the  teaching  of  advertising 
in  connection  with  English : 

OXJIXINE. 

I.  The  laws  of  attention  applied  to  advertising: 

1.  Absence  of  counter  attractions. 

2.  Intensity  of  sensation. 

3.  Contrast. 

4.  Ease  of  comprehension. 

5.  Repetition. 

6.  Emotional  appeal. 

II.  Appeals  to  senses  and  instincts  (talking  points)  : 

Taste,    hearing,    smell,    touch,    cleanliness,    protection,    luxury,    health, 
family,  love,  etc. 

III.  Association  of  ideas:  Slogans. 

IV.  Direct,  command. 
V.  Return  coupon. 

VI.  Classes  of  advertisements: 

1.  Argumentative,  suggestive. 

2.  Classified,  display. 

3.  Api)eals  to  different  classes. 

4.  Conversational. 

5.  Testimonial. 

VII.  The  English  of  advertisements. 
VIII.  Numerous  practice  exercises  in  the  writing  of  advertisements. 

10.  SALESMANSHIP. 

OUTLINE. 

Salesmanship : 

Purpose  of  the  course. 
Definition. 

Classification:  Retail;  wholesale. 
Scope:  Everyone  has  something  to  sell. 
A  science:  Laws  and  principles  governing  the  work. 
An  art :  Ability  to  apply  the  laws  and  principles. 
Relation  to  advertising. 
The  business  of  selling: 

The  old  caveat  emptor  policy. 

The  modern  policy. 

"  Service  "  the  slogan  today. 

Selling  the  vital  force  in  business. 

Passing  of  the  apprenticeship  system: 

Reason  for  demand  for  sales  course. 
"Big  business"  with  its  many  employees: 

Less  chance  to  catch  and  reflect  true  spirit  of  the  business; 

Business  policy  supplied  through  salesmanship. 


COURSES  IN   THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  55 

The  business  of  selling — Continued. 
Need  for  trained  salesmen. 
Opportunities  for  salesmen. 
Salesmen  vs.  order  takers. 
The  factors  in  a  sale :  Goods ;  customer ;  salesman. 
The  goods: 

History. 

Where  and  how  made. 

Supply  and  demand. 

Advantages. 

Benefits  derived  from. 

Qualities. 

Prices. 
•  Competing   goods. 

Other  information  from — People  who  buy; 
Printed  literature; 
Employers,  or  their  agents. 

(Use  an  article  in  class  to  bring  out  selling  points.) 
The  customer : 

Who  may  be  customers. 

His  hobby ;  likes  and  dislikes,  etc. 

General  classes  of  people: 

The  common  traits  of  each  class. 

The  difficulty  of  classification  because  of  individuality.  ^ 

The  customer's  side  of  the  "  fence." 

The  goods  and  the  customer's  needs. 

"  The  customer  is  always  right." 

(Note :  Mental  characteristics^  instincts,  habits,  etc.,  taken  up  later.) 
The  salesman: 

Reasons  for  salesmen. 

Salesmen  and  vending  machines. 

Importance  of  salesmen. 

Health  and  appearance. 

Rest  and  relaxation. 

Cliaracter  and  reputation. 

Ability  to  talk  well. 

Ability  to  listen  well. 

Knowledge  of  self. 

Self-control. 

Education. 
The  psychology  of  selling: 

Definition    (nontechnical). 

IJse  of  psychology. 

The  mind  and  the  brain. 

The  brain  a  record. 

Structure  of  the  brain. 

Brain  impressions. 

Experience  made  up  of  impressions. 

Impressions  and  memory. 

Conditions  of  good  memory. 

Science  of  memorizing. 
Knowledge  of  human  nature  in  selling: 

Difference  in  individuals. 

The  different  tastes. 


56  BUSINESS   EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

The  human  instincts : 
Definition. 
Enumeration. 
Use  in  selling. 
Instinct  developed  into  habit. 
Difference  between  instinct  and  habit. 
The  power  of  habit. 
Danger  of  breaking  up  business  habits. 
Establishing  new  habits  with  new  goods. 
Imagination : 

Value  to  salesman. 

New  ideas  based  upon  old  ideas. 
Reasoning : 

Comparison  of  ideas. 

Necessary  to  successful  selling. 

Deductive. 

Inductive. 
Expression : 

Effect  on  the  countenance. 

Reveals  pleasure  or  displeasure. 
The  development  of  personality : 

Definition  of  personality. 

Result  of  right  thinking  and  living. 

Importance    of    suggestion — in    developing    personality;    in    influencing 
people. 

Personality  depends  upon  positive  qualities. 

Meaning  of  positive  qualities. 

A  few  positive  qualities :   Courtesy ;   initiative ;   sincerity ;   enthusiasm ; 
confidence;   loyalty;    analysis;    work.      (The   student   should   be   en- 
couraged to  increase  this  list.) 
The  steps  in  a  sale: 

Attention ; 

Interest ; 

Desire ; 

Action. 
Getting  attention : 

The  approach.  ^ 

Forms  of  address. 

Value  of  "  Good  morning." 

Knowledge  of  customer's  name. 

Selling  points  of  the  goods. 

Positive  suggestions. 

Making  favorable  impressions. 

Studying  the  prospect. 

Suggesting  rather  than  urging. 
Creating  interest: 

Transform  attention  into  interest. 

The  demonstration  :  Manner  ;  length  ;  value. 
The  customer's  point  of  view : 

Through  customer's  questions. 
Customer  in  the  afhrmative  state  of  mind. 
Anticipating  objections. 
The  article  in  the  hands  of  the  customer. 
Appeals  to  the  senses. 


COURSES   IN   THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  57 

Building  up  desire : 

Interest  naturally  becomes  desire. 

The  instinct  of  possession  (ownership). 

Appeals  to  needs,  profit,  pleasure. 

Kinds  of  objections. 

Dislodging  objections:  Expressions  of  the  face  reveal  attitude  of  cus- 
tomer. 

Frankness  and  sympathy  necessary. 

The  price  of  the  article :  When  and  how  given. 

Reserve  talking  points. 
Impelling  action: 

The  close  of  sale  an  act  of  the  will :  Ending  of  conflict  of  ideas. 

The  sale  made  in  the  mind. 

Difficulty  of  determining  psychological  moment  for  closing  sale. 

Treatment  of  indecision. 

Suggesting  present  enjoyment,  profit,  pleasure. 

Overcoming  final  objections. 

Showing  the  customer  how  to  act :  By  clear,  concise  instructions. 
Impelling  action : 

Final  appeal  a  positive  suggestion :  Its  natural  result  in  action. 

appe>:dix. 

Sales  should  be  observed  and  reported  to  the  class  by  each  student. 

Demonstration  sales  should  be  given  before  the  class  by  each  member.  Criti- 
cism should  follow. 

The  problems  assigned  should  be  within  the  knowledge  of  the  student.  Let 
the  student  select  his  article  to  sell. 

A  salesmanship  score  card  may  be  used  in  criticising  a  sale. 

Business  organization  may  be  taught  with  salesmanship. 

11.  RETAIL  SELLING  AND  STORE  SERVICE.* 

The  full  course  in  retail  selling  and  store  service  in  any  school 
should  include  the  maximum  offered  in  that  school  in  salesmanship 
and  merchandise  and  should  cover  a  two-year  period.  The  require- 
ments for  a  passing  grade  in  retail  selling  should  be  based  upon: 
1,  Classroom  work;  2,  Home  study;  3,  Store  practice. 

The  classroom  work  should  consist  of  recitations,  discussions,  also 
oral  and  written  reviews  as  outlined  in  the  following  course  of  study : 

RETAIL    selling:    ELEVENTH    YEAR. 

Salesmanship, 

History  of  development  of  training  courses  in  retail  selling. 
Explanation  of  part-time  courses  based  on  required  practice  work  in  stores. 
Store  system  including  the  sales  check.    Cash,  change,  and  C.  O.  D.  sales. 
Penmanship.    Legible  handwriting  on  sales,  checks,  and  other  records. 

1  The  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  has  issued  a  special  bulletin  on  this  type 
of  commercial  education.  Full  details  of  the  course  and  a  definite  plan  for  organizing 
such  a  course  are  given  in  this  bulletin,  which  may  be  obtained  by  addressing  a  request 
for  Bulletin  No.  22  (Retail  Selling)  to  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


I 

58  BUSINESS  EDUCATIOISr   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

Arithmetic:  Drill  for  accuracy  and  speed  iu  addition,  subtraction,  multipli- 
cation, fractions  and  percentage — drill  in  counting  back  change,  meusuring, 
making  budgets,  including  clothing  and  food. 

Duties  and  responsibilities  of  various  junior  positions:  Cashier,  examiner, 
stock-marker,  messenger,  office  worker. 

Receiving,  unpacking,  and  marking. 

Care  of  stock. 

Store  directory. 

Business  ethics:  Personal  appearance,  dress,  attitude,  manner,  character; 
rules  for  store  employees. 

English :  The  speaking  voice,  development  of  forceful  speech,  choice  of  words, 
vocabulary,  and  notebook  work. 

Spelling:  Customers'  names,  addresses,  towns,  streets,  merchandise,  names, 
including  foreign  terms. 

Discussion  of  store  experiences. 

Individual  conferences  regarding  pupils'  store  work,  based  on  teacher's 
"  follow  up  "  work. 

Merchandise. 

Textiles  and  non-textiles. 

Classification  of  textiles. 

Correlation  of  textiles  with:  Industrial  history;  current  events;  commercial 
geography  ;  civics ;  economics. 

Producing  markets — buying  and  selling  of  textile  fibers  and  fabrics. 

Textiles — raw  materials  of  cotton  and  wool,  manufacturing  processes  of 
cotton  and  wool,  finished  products,  merchandise  made  from  finished  products. 

The  relation  of  a  study  of  textiles  to  work  of  a  sales  person. 

Cloth  analysis — for  elements  affecting  style,  value,  quantity,  and  price. 

Merchandise  study — ^style,  season,  and  cost. 

Shipping  and  transportation  in  relation  to  costs  of  merchandise. 

Foreign  buying  offices — Paris,  Vienna,  Berlin,  Rome. 

Knitting  and  knitted  goods. 

Jewelry. 

Toys,  games. 

Patterns. 

Automobile  furnishings  and  accessories. 

Stationery. 

RETAIL    SELLING    AND    STORE    SERVICE :    TWELFTH    YEAE. 

I.  Salesmanship: 

1.  Store  organization,  with  requirements  of  each  position. 

2.  Store  system. 

3.  Store  directory. 

4.  English — choice  of  words,  forceful  speech,  speaking  voice. 

5.  Approaching  customers  and  starting  sales. 

6.  Presenting  the  merchandise. 

7.  The  selling  points  of  merchandise. 

8.  Concluding  the  sale. 

9.  Service,  including  service  features. 

10.  Waste  and  its  control. 

11.  Arithmetic,  with  sales-slip  practice. 

12.  Economics — labor   laws,  public   meetings,   working  conditions,   food, 

health,  recreation. 


COUESES   IN   THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  59 

I.  Salesmanship — Coutiuued. 

13.  Ethics  of  business,  appearance,  and  deportment  of  sales  people ;  char- 

acter analysis. 

14.  Advertising. 

15.  Lectures. 

16.  Store  experience,  with  class  discussion ;  also  individual  conferences 

after  "  follow  up." 

17.  Types  of  customers. 

18.  Demonstrate  sales  with  class  discussion,  bringing  out  the  following 

selling  points: 
(a)   Suggestion. 
(&)   Substitution. 

(c)  Knowledge  of  stock. 

(d)  Accuracy  in  giving  directions  and  taking  atklresses. 

(e)  Service  to  all  customers  at  all  times. 
if)   Use  of  reserve  stock. 

iff)   Price  comparisons. 
(h)   Sale  of  higher  priced  merchandise, 
(i)  Naming  amount  of  money  received  from  customers. 
ij)   Interest  in  customer  until  she  leaves  the  dei>artment. 
(fc)  Attitude  toward  gifts  and  tips. 
(l)   Interpretation  of  rules. 

(m)   Handling  of  special  orders,  call  slips,  and  promises. 
n.  Merchandise: 

1.  Textiles — raw  materials  of  silk,  linen,  jute,  sisal,  hemp,  etc. 

2.  By-products  of  textile  fibers. 

3.  Producing  and  manufacturing. 

4.  Correlation   of   textile   study   with :  Industrial   history ;   Commercial 

geography  ;  Citizenship  ;  Economics  ;  Current  events. 

5.  Markets. 

6.  Shipping  and  transportation  oi"  silk,  linen,  ramie,  and  other  fibers. 

7.  Scientific  analysis  of  textile  fibers. 

8.  Chemical  and  physical  tests  of  textile  fibers. 

9.  Collection  of  samples  of  silk,  linen,  etc.,  with  important  facts. 

10.  Mill  and  factory  visits,  also  museimi. 

11.  Merchandise  made  from  fibers  studied,  gloves,  hosieiy,  linens,  etc. 

12.  Ready-to-wear  merchandise. 

13.  Notions  and  small  wares. 

14.  Household  furnishings. 

15.  Kitchen  ware,  china,  glass,  cutlery. 

16.  Laces,  machine  made  and  hand  made. 

17.  Metal  fibers  and  trimmings. 

18.  Lecture  on  merchandise  by  buyers. 

19.  Discussion  of  clippings  and  trade  papers  and  magazines. 

20.  Relation  of  selling  to  advertising. 

21.  Color  and  design  as  applied  to  clothing,  house  furnishings,  window 

trimming,  and  display. 

22.  Standards  of  good  taste. 

23.  Responsibilities  of  heads  of  stock,  sale^ers<>n  assistant  buyer ;  buyer 

and  merchandise  manager. 


60  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

^  HOME    WOKK    FOB    ELEVENTH    AND    TWELFTH    YEABS. 

1.  Assigned  home  reading. 

2.  Special  investigation  and  researcli. 

3.  Observation. 

4.  Collecting  and  mounting  samples  of  finished  products. 

5.  Collecting  articles  of  merchandise  or  of  any  interesting  material  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  merchandise. 

6.  Shopping  expeditions. 

7.  Study  of  advertising:  Newspaper,  magazine,  street  car,  window,  and  dis- 
play. 

8.  Advertisement  writing. 

9.  Interviews  with  employment  managers  and  other  similar  assignments. 

10.  Visits  to  mills,  factories,  and  museums. 

11.  Visits  to  shipping,  receiving  rooms,  ventilation  plants^  and  alteration 
rooms  of  large  stores. 

12.  Papers  written  on  all  visits  and  assigned  topics. 

13.  Notebook  work  on  selling  notes,  also  merchandise  notes. 

14.  Compiling  material  and  writing  papers  on  assigned  merchandise  topics, 
such  as  dolls,  toys,  hosiery,  stationery,  children's  shoes,  etc. 

12.  COMMERCIAL  LAW. 

Pupils  need  the  right  point  of  view  toward  the  economic  activities 
of  society.  There  must  be  j)rovision  somewhere  in  a  commercial  cur- 
riculum for  explanation  and  discussion  of  the  services  rendered  a 
community  by  institutions  with  which  students  are  soon  to  be  con- 
nected in  an  humble  capacity.  Ignorance  regarding  business  institu- 
tions deprives  the  beginner  of  that  intelligence  which  ought  to  ani- 
mate him  and  which  the  community  should  require  before  it  offers 
him  opportunity  for  wider  usefulness. 

Commercial  students  should  be  informed  regarding  banks,  in- 
surance companies,  stock  exchanges  and  clearing  houses,  common 
carriers,  innkeepers,  commercial  agencies,  and  courts  of  law.  There 
is  so  much  in  this  field  that  we  must  adopt  and  hold  to  some  co- 
ordinating principle  in  order  to  escape  a  random  and  unorganized 
description  of  many  things.  The  most  satisfactory  underlying  and 
controlling  principle  is  the  law  of  contract. 

In  the  course  here  outlined  the  legal  principles  underlying  the 
contractual  relations  involved  in  sales,  loans,  interest  and  discount, 
credit,  deeds,  wills,  negotiable  paper,  employer's  liability,  legal- 
tender  money,  stocks,  and  bonds  are  studied  just  as  far  as  may  be 
necessary  to  rationalize  the  various  operations  involved  in  their  prac- 
tical execution ;  but  the  important  thing  is  to  explain,  first,  the  mean- 
ing of  these  things  and,  second,  the  point  of  contact;  all  we  should 
expect  of  commercial  law  is  a  point  of  view  and  a  limiting  principle. 

It  is  important  that  the  teacher  should  not  regard  the  subject  as 
an  end  in  itself  but  rather'  as  an  explanation  of  business  conduct. 
There  will  then  be  many  ways  of  linking  the  subject  with  others  in 


COURSES  IN  THB   COMMERCIAL  GITRRICULUM.  61 

the  commercial  curriculum,  particularly  with  bookkeeping  which 
contains  records  of  a  large  number  of  transactions  that  need  ex- 
tended explanation.  To  supplement  the  instruction  in  bookkeeping 
by  direct  reference  to  problems  in  the  law  class  vitalizes  both 
subjects.  It  may  be  necessary  to  caution  against  a  too  great  reduc- 
tion of  place  and  function  of  law.  Teach  its  sanctity;  appeal  to  its 
power;  show  its  historic  development  as  one  of  our  institutions; 
create  a  respect  for  its  inviolability  and  a  jealousy  for  its  honor; 
and  when  that  is  done,  trace  its  presence  underneath  our  common 
relationships. 

1.    LAW  AS  A  SOCIAL  FORCE. 

Before  attempting  the  study  of  specific  laws  it  will  be  necessary  to 
consider  the  broad  basis  of  law ;  its  need  in  the  social  and  economic 
scheme  of  things;  its  universality;  its  source  and  manner  of  en- 
forcement. The  outline  which  follows  deals  with  this  preview  of 
the  subject  and  should  be  studied  for  its  general  informational  value 
rather  than  for  its  technical  worth. 

OUTLINE. 

I.  Morality  and  legality  in  business: 

1.  Ethical  standards  higher  than  legal  standards. 

2.  Criminal  laws  unnecessary  for  the  restraint  of  the  upright. 

3.  Difficulty  of  knowing  the  right  in  civil  matters. 

4.  The  necessity  for  civil  law. 
II.  Business  ethics: 

1.  Capitalization  of  service  and  good  will. 

2.  Qualities  of  character  that  make  for  success. 

3.  Jealousy  of  one's  reputation  (a)  by  individuals;  (&)  by  institutions. 

III.  The  university  of  law: 

1.  Natural  law. 

2.  Man-made  law : 

(a)   Statute  law. 

(&)  English  common  law:   (1)  Its  growth;   (2)   its  transfer  to  the 
United  States. 

IV.  Law  in  the  United  States : 

1.  The  Constitution:   (a)  Federal  and  State  jurisdictions. 

2.  Law-making  bodies:  {a)  Congress;  (6)  Legislatures. 

3.  Courts. 

V.  The  manner  of  enforcing  law : 

1.  Power  of  judicial  decrees. 

2.  Resources  of  a  sheriff. 

3.  Police  functions  of  a  State. 
VI.  Necessity  of  respect  for  law : 

1.  Contrast  anarchy. 

2.  Contrast  mob  rule  and  lynch  law. 

3.  Duty  of  a  minority  in  a  republic. 
VII.  Appeal  of  individuals  to  law : 

1.  For  protection  of  person  and  property. 

2.  To  settle  disputes,  particularly  over  contracts. 


62  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

*  2.    LEGAL  PRINCIPLES  THAT  GOVERN  ALL  BUSINESS  INTERCOURSE. 

Society  requires  laws  for  its  guidance  in  its  multiplicity  of  busi- 
ness dealings.  Practically  all  economic  intercourse  is  based  on  con- 
tractual relations.  In  part  2  of  this  outline  the  more  technical  prin- 
ciples that  govern  in  the  adjustment  of  business  matters  are  covered. 
This  part  of  the  course  should  be  studied  with  extreme  thoroughness, 
not  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  one  to  act  as  his  own  lawyer,  but 
rather  to  teach  one  how  so  to  conduct  his  affairs  as  to  avoid  legal 
entanglements  and  to  make  intelligent  use  of  legal  talent  when  the 
emergenc}^  arises.  It  is  not  desirable  that  all  the  subtleties  of  these 
subjects  be  considered.  The  law  should  be  made  to  stand  out  as  a 
guidepost  in  the  rough  business  road  over  which  the  pupil  will  travel. 

OUTLINE. 

I.  Contracts: 

1.  Illustrate  tlieir  presence,  express  or  implied,  in  all  business  relation- 

ships. 

2.  Essentials  of  legal  contracts: 

(a)  Agreements.  ' 

(ft)  Competent  parties. 

(c)  Consideration. 

(d)  Form. 

(e)  Freedom. 

3.  How  to  write  a  contract.     (Practice  framing  contracts  on  simple  sub- 

jects, e.  g.,  employment.) 

4.  How  contracts  come  to  an  end : 

(a)  By  performance. 
(&)  By  impossibility. 

(c)  By  breach. 

1.  Remedies:  (a)  In  a  court  of  law;  (&)  in  a  court  of  equity. 

(d)  By  bankruptcy : 

1.  A  remedy  for  creditors. 

2.  A  resource  for  debitors :  (a)  Ethics  of  voluntary  bankruptcy. 
II.  Sales  of  goods: 

1.  Possession  vs.  title. 

2.  Duties  of  the  buyer — of  the  seller, 

3.  Warranties. 

4.  Liens. 

5.  Sales  on  installment 

6.  Sales  on  approval. 

7.  Terms. 

III.  Instruments  of  credit : 

1.  Checks. 

2.  Notes. 

3.  Drafts. 

4.  Liability  of  banks  for  payment. 

5.  Liability  of  drawer  and  maker. 

6.  Indorsing. 

7.  Presentment  for  acceptance  and  payment. 

8.  Protest  and  notice  of  protest. 

9.  Defenses. 


COTTRSES  I'N  THE   COMMERCIAL   CURRICULUM.  63 

IV.  Biiilment: 

1.  For  benefit  solely  of  the  lender. 

2.  For  benefit  solely  of  the  borrower. 

3.  For  benefit  of  both  parties. 

(Illustrate  each  case  and  show  the  reasonableness  of  the  varying 
degrees  of  liability  required  by  law.) 
V.  Agency  (show  how  common  this  relationship  is)  : 

1.  Power  of  attorney. 

2.  Proxies. 

3.  Duties  of  principal  and  agent. 

4.  Liabilities  of  principal  and  a:rejit. 
VI.  Employer's  liability : 

1.  Compensation  laws. 

2.  Statutory  requirements. 

3.  Employer's  liability  insurance. 

4.  "  Safety  first." 
VII.  Partnerships : 

1.  Partnership   agreements:    (a)    Sharing  profits;    (b)    investments   of 

money  and  time. 

2.  Kinds  of  partners. 

3.  High  degree  of  good  faith  required, 

4.  Liability  of  partners. 

5.  Risks  in  partnerships. 
VIII.  Corporations: 

1.  Methods  of  incorporation. 

2.  Stockholders:    (a)    Shares    (par   value);    (b)    annual   meeting;    (c) 

transfer  of  stock;   (r?)  effect  of  death  of  stockholder. 

3.  Officers  and  directors. 

4.  Methods  of  taxation  by  States. 

5.  Public  service  corporations. 
IX.  Ownership  of  real  estate : 

1.  Definition  of  real  estate. 

2.  Fixtures. 

3.  How  real  estate  is  acquired. 

4.  Mortgages. 

5.  Renting. 

X.  The  law  of  inheritance: 

(This  is  not  to  be  studied  as  a  feature  of  business  activity,  but  for  aid 
in  time  of  individual  need,  which  is  likely  to  come  upon  the  death  of 
parents.) 

1.  In  case  a  will  is  made :  Duties  of  executors. 

2.  In  case  no  will  is  made:  Appointment  of  administrator. 

3.  Who  are  heirs :  Statutory  definition. 

4.  Courtesy  and  dower. 

a.    QUASI-PUBLIC    ORGANIZATIONS. 

One  may  or  may  not  deal  with  the  ordinary  business  concern,  but 
there  is  a  type  of  business  organization  known  as  "  quasi-public," 
with  which  all  civilized  people  must  have  more  or  less  to  do,  and 
whose  business  is,  therefore,  more  or  less  circumscribed  by  the  law 
whence  it  originates. 


64  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

"For  protective  purposes  it  is  highly  important  that  pupils  under- 
stand in  a  general  way  at  least  their  rights  and  obligations  in  dealing 
with  these  special  kinds  of  business  organizations.  In  part  3  this 
type  of  business  is  given  such  attention  as  its  importance  requires. 
Like  part  1,  it  deals  with  general  informational  matter  and  should  be 
treated  accordingly. 

T.  Railroads. 

1.  Duties  of  common  carriers:  (a)  To  carry  for  all  alike;  (&)  to  pay  for 

damage  done;  (c)  to  charge  reasonable  rates. 

2.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission.     (Explain  its  history,  its  com- 

position, its  jurisdiction,  briefly.) 

3.  Problem  of  equitable  rates:    (a)   Long  haul  v.  short  haul;   (h)   dif- 

ferentials;  (c)  private  car  contracts. 

4.  Receiving  goods:   (a)  Bills  of  lading;  (&)  freight  receipts;  way  bills. 
(It  is  possible  to  obtain  illustrative  forms  from  express  companies, 

shippers,  railroads,  etc.) 

5.  Delivery  of  goods:  (a)  Notice  to  consignee;  (&)  meaning  of  "demur- 

rage";  (c)  liability  for  detention. 

6.  Duties  to  passengers:    (a)    To  carry  all  who   apply;    (&)    to  carry 

their  baggage;  (c)  to  carry  safely. 

7.  Rules  for  conduct  in  shipping  freight:    (a)    Regarding  packing  and 

addressing;    (&)    regarding  declaration   of  contents;    (c)    regard- 
ing claims — how  made. 
II.  Express  companies:  ^ 

1.  Their  relation  to  railroads. 

2.  Their  banking  service. 

3.  Rules   in   conduct   in   shipping  by   express:    (a)    Regarding  sending 

"C.   O.   D."   and   "Collect";    (h)    regarding   declaration   of   cos- 
tents;  (c)  regarding  receipt  of  packages. 
III.  Insurance: 

1.  The  theory — distribution  of  losses :  Not  gambling  on  uncertain  events. 

2.  Kinds  of  insurance. 

3.  Contract  requires  the  highest  good  faith. 

4.  Reinsurance. 
IV.  Hotels: 

1.  Duties  of  the  landlord. 

2.  Duties  of  the  guest. 

3.  Historic  reason  for  severity  of  law. 
V.  Bonding  and  title  gaurantee  companies: 

1.  Positions  that  require  bonds. 

2.  How  to  secure  a  bond. 

3.  The  law  of  guaranty. 

VI.  Business  operating  under  special  law  of  bailment : 

1.  Pawnbrokers  (a)  Statutory  provisions;  (l»)  title  to  loans. 


nAxmm} 


PART  III.— CONCLUSION. 

A  word  or  two  should  be  added  by  way  of  conclusion  to  the  cur- 
riculum and  the  detailed  suggestions  above  presented.  It  is  quite 
obvious  that  the  success  of  such  an  educational  program  as  is  out- 
lined will  depend  on  the  efficiency  of  teachers.  The  preparation  of 
teachers  for  commercial  curriculums  is  at  present  an  acute  problem 
which  should  receive  the  earnest  attention  of  all  who  wish  to  raise 
these  curriculums  to  a  higher  level  of  educational  accomplishment. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  example  set  by  at  least  three  normal  schools 
in  offering  courses  for  the  training  of  commercial  teachers  will  be 
more  generally  followed.  Might  it  not  be  well  for  one  normal 
school  in  each  State  to  be  assigned  the  task  of  developing  specialized 
instruction  for  commercial  teachers?  Then,  too,  may  the  country 
not  look  to  the  schools  of  education  for  courses  which  will  prepare 
commercial  teachers?  The  higher  schools  of  commerce,  similarly, 
would  be  rendering  a  conspicuous  service  to  the  branch  of  educa- 
tion which  they  represent  by  offering  one  or  more  courses,  the  pur- 
pose of  which  would  be  the  preparation  of  teachers  of  commercial 
studies.  Such  policies  would  create  an  entirely  new  outlook  for 
commercial  education. 

Not  only  should  there  be  regular  courses  in  term  time  for  the 
training  of  commercial  teachers,  but  there  is  great  need  for  summer 
courses  to  the  same  end  in  colleges,  universities,  schools  of  education, 
and  normal  schools.  Such  instruction  would  be  of  great  service  in 
raising  the  educational  standard  of  teachers  already  at  work.  A 
few  of  the  institutions  mentioned  have  given  scattering  courses  of 
the  sort  indicated,  pointing  to  the  possibilities  in  this  direction.  It 
is  the  hope  of  the  committee  that  an  increased  number  of  such  courses 
will  be  furnished  in  the  future. 

The  too  prevalent  idea  that  commercial  courses  are  something 
cheap,  either  in  the  cost  of  maintaining  them  or  in  the  product  they 
turn  out,  should  be  disavowed.  Commercial  education  has  long  been 
considered  a  cheap  method  of  ^Tmiting "  boys  and  girls  through  a 
high  schooir^  To  give  commercial  instruction  satisfactorily  will  prob- 
ably cost  more  than  to  give  academic  courses,  because  the  instruments 
for  training  and  the  practical  work  are  more  expensive. 

65 


66  BUSINESS  EDUCATIOl^   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

It  is  the  belief  of  the  committee,  born  not  only  of  a  study  of  the 
problem,  but  confirmed  by  observation  and  experience,  that  com- 
mercial education  rightly  understood  offers  an  opportunity  to  give 
a  sound  training  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word,  and  to  equip  young 
people  so  that  they  may  find  a  point  of  contact  and  begin  their  life 
work  with  a  fair  prospect  of  a  useful  career.  The  committee  believes 
that  such  an  ideal  is  possible  of  realization  and  this  report  has  been 
prepared  and  is  submitted  in  the  hope  of  contributing  toward  that 
desirable  end. 


APPENDIX. 

SUGGESTED  QUESTIONNAIRE. 

1.  Name   of    concern    .    Address   .    Business   in   wMch   engaged 


2 'Number  of  employees  in  clerical  positions . 

3.  Number  of  new  clerical  employees  engaged  in  last  12  months  . 

4.  Range  of  age  at  which  these  employees  are  taken  on . 

5.  How  many  of  the  above  were  graduates  of  public  high  schools?  .     Of 

private   schools?   .     Of   business   colleges?   .     Of    grammar 

schools?  . 

6.  Is  it  the  rule  to  promote  persons  who  enter  service  in  subordinate  posi- 

tions?   . 

7.  Does  the  concern  maintain  a  school  of  instruction  or  supervise  the  education 

of  its  younger  employees?  . 

8.  Does  the  concern  stimulate  employees  to  attend  continuation  schools  in  eve- 

nings or  at  other  times?  .     (N.  B. — By  "continuation  school"  is 

meant  any  school  in  which  a  person  continues  education  while  remaining 
at  employment.) 

9.  Does  the  concern  give  time  off  from  working  hours  so  that  employees  over 

16  years  of  age  can  attend  schools? ..    , 

10.  Is  any  attempt  made  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  schools  which  employees 

attend  and  to  learn  of  employees'  progress? . 

11.  What  tangible  encouragement  is  given  employees  above  16  years  of  age  to 

attend  continuation  schools? .     (e.  g.)  Is  tuition  paid  in  whole  or 

in  part?  .     Is  promotion  open  to  those  who   satisfactorily   com- 
plete instruction  in  continuation  schools?  . 

12.  Is  the  instruction  of  continuation  schools  of  real  service  to  those  in  em- 

ployment?   . 

13.  Are  employees  satisfactorily  trained  as  they  come  to  service:   (a)  In  spell- 

ing?   .   (&)   In  penmanship?  .   (c)   In  the  ability  to  write  a 

letter  in  correct  and  clear  English?  .    (d)   In  ability  to  perform 

fundamental   operations    in   arithmetic    with   accuracy    and    reasonable 

speed? .     (/)  In  al3ility  to  operate  a  typewriter?  .     (g)  In 

the  capacity  to  take  and  transcribe  dictation?  .     {h)   In  general 

intelligence  and  knowledge  of  present  day  affairs?  .     (i)   In  the 

capacity  to  understand  and  carry  out  directions?  . 

14.  In  your  opinion,  do  schools  giving  commercial  training  overemphasize  the 

place  of  bookkeeping  in  instruction?  .- 

15.  Do  the  schools  teach  bookkeeping  which  is  not  useful? . 

16.  To  what  extent  are  dictating  machines  lessening  the  necessity  for  young 

people  to  be  trained  in  stenography?  . 

67 


68  BUSINESS  EDUCATION   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

17.  Do  you  regard  it  as  desirable  that  those  being  given  commercial  training 
shall  have  instruction  in:  (a)  Salesmanship? .  (6)  Business  or- 
ganization and  procedure? .     (c)  Welfare  work  and  store  service? 

.     (d)  Office  appliances,  machines,  etc.?  .     (e)  What  other 


subject  or  subjects  would  you  suggest  for  training? 


18.  Where  would  you  suggest  that  an  increased  emphasis  be  placed  in  the 

training  of  those  who  are  to  come  into  ybur  employ?:   {a)  For  young 
men? .     (&)  For  young  women? . 

19.  How  important  is  it  that  messengers  and  junior  helpers  about  an  office  be 

trained  to  operate  a  typewriter? . 

20.  Are  clerical  employees  interested  in  their  work? . 


21.  Are  clerical  employees  more  interested  or  less  interested  in  their  work  than 

are  other  employees?  . 

22.  Are  clerical  employees  loyal  to  their  employers? . 


23.  In  your  opinion,  is  more  prolonged  and  more  highly  specialized  preliminary 

training  desirable  for  those  whom  you  are  taking  into  positions? . 

24.  What  further  suggestions  will  you  make  looking  to  higher  efficiency  of 

clerical  employees?  . 

Note. — If,  for  any  reason,  you  can  not,  or  do  not  wish  to,  answer  all  of  the 
above  questions,  kindly  answer  in  part  and  return  the  questionnaire. 


BULLETIN  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION  FOR  1919. 

[Contiuued  from  page  2  or  cover.] 

No.  43.  Education  in  France.    I.  L.  Kaudel. 

No.  44.  Modern  education  in  China.    Charles  K.  Edmunds. 

No.  45.  North  central  accredited  secondary  schools.    Calvin  O.  Davis. 

No.  46.  Bibliography  of  home  economics.     Carrie  A.  Lyford. 

No.  47.  Private  commercial  and  business  schools,  1917-18. 

No.  48.  Educational  hygiene.    Willard  S.  Small. 

No.  49.  Education  in  parts  of  the  British  Empire. 

No.  50.  Report  on  the  public  school  system  of  Memphis,  Tenu. 

No.  51.  The  application  of  confmercial  advertising  methods  to  university  ex- 
tension.   Mary  B.  Orvis. 

No.  52.  Industrial  schools  for  delinquents,  1917-18. 

No.  53.  Educational    work     of    the    Young    Men's    Christian     Associations, 

191(J-1918. 
No.  54.  The  schools  of  xiustria-Hungary.    Peter  H.  Pearson. 
No.  55.  Business  education  in  secondary  schools. 
No.  56.  The  administration  of  con-espondence-study  departments  of  universities 

and  colleges.    Arthur  J.  Klein. 
No.  57.  Educational  conditions  in  Japan.    Walter  A.  Montgomery. 
No.  58.  Commercial  engineering.    Glen  L.  Swiggett. 
No.  59.  Some  phases  of  educational  progress  in  Latin  America.     Walter  A. 

Montgomery. 
No.  60.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  September,  1919. 
No.  01.  Public  discussion  and  information  service  of  university  extension.    Wal- 
ton S.  Bittner. 
No.  62.  Class  extension  \^'ork  in  universities  and  colleges  of  the  United  States. 

Arthur  J.  Klein. 
No.  63.  Natural  science  teaching  in  Great  Britain. 
No.  64.  Library  activities,  1916-1918.     John  D.  Wolcott. 
No.  65.  The  eyesight  of  school  children.     J.  H.  Berkowitz. 
No.  66.  Training  teachers  of  agriculture. 

No.  67.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  October,  1919. 
No.  68.  Financial  and  building  needs  of  the  schools  of  Lexington,  Ky. 
No.  69.  Proceedings  of  the  fourth  annual  meeting  of  the  National  Council  of 

Primary  Education. 
No.  70.  Schools  and  classes  for  feeble-minded  and  subnormal  children,  1918. 
No.  71.  Educational  directory,  1919-20. 

No.  72.  An  abstract  of  the  report  on  the  public-school  system  of  Memphis,  Tenn. 
No.  73.  Nurse  training  schools,  1918. 

No.  74.  The  Federal  Executive  Departments  as  sources  of  information  for  libra- 
ries.    Edith  Guerrier. 
No.  75.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  November,  1919. 
No.  76.  Community  Americanization.    Fred  C.  Butler. 
No.  77.  State  Americanization.     Fred  C.  Butler. 
No.  78.  Schools  and  classes  for  the  blind,  1917-18. 
No.  79.  Schools  for  the  deaf,  1917-18. 

No.  80.  Teaching  English  to  the  foreign  born.     Henry  H.  Goldberger. 
No.  81.  Statistics  of  normal  schools,  1917-18.    L.  E.  Blauch  and  H.  R.  Bonner. 


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